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Sulfur Mustard

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Critical Care Toxicology

Abstract

The exact date of the first sulfur mustard synthesis is uncertain [1]. There are several reports on the formation of a chemical compound formed by the reaction of sulfur dichloride and ethylene in the early nineteenth century by the Belgian-French chemist César-Mansuète Despretz [2–5]. However, it is unclear whether Despretz realized the irritating or toxic properties of his newly discovered product [2]. The German chemist Albert Niemann reported in 1860 during experiments with ethylene and sulfur dichloride the formation of an oily liquid, “Even traces brought into contact with the skin, while painless at first, result in a reddening of the skin after several hours, and in the following days produce blisters which fester, heal slowly and with great difficulty, and leave behind significant scarring” [2, 6, 7]. Niemann likely suffered from sulfur mustard-induced pulmonary late effects that resulted in an early death. Almost in parallel, the British chemist Frederick Guthrie reported the same reaction [8, 9]. In 1886, the German chemist Viktor Meyer established the first reliable synthesis of pure sulfur mustard based on the chlorination of thiodiglycol, produced from chloroethanol and potassium sulfide, with phosphorus trichloride [10, 11]. This process is recognized as the “Meyer method” and has to be considered an important step toward the large-scale production of sulfur mustard [12]. The Levinstein process involved the reaction of ethylene and sulfur chloride and resulted in less pure products [3, 5, 13]. These impurities are responsible for the characteristic odor (garlic-, horseradish-, mustard-like) of non-distilled sulfur mustard [3, 5, 14, 15].

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937, Munich, Germany

    Dirk Steinritz & Horst Thiermann

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  1. Dirk Steinritz
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  2. Horst Thiermann
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Correspondence to Dirk Steinritz or Horst Thiermann .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Colorado School of Medicine, Toxicology Associates, Denver, Colorado, USA

    Jeffrey Brent

  2. Office of New Drugs Drug Evaluation and Research, FDA, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA

    Keith Burkhart

  3. Clinical Toxicology, St Thomas' Hospital, London, United Kingdom

    Paul Dargan

  4. University of Colorado School of Medicine, Toxicology Associates, Denver, Colorado, USA

    Benjamin Hatten

  5. Med & Toxicological Intensive Care Unit, Lariboisière Hospital Paris-Diderot University, Paris, France

    Bruno Megarbane

  6. University of Colorado School of Medicine, Toxicology Associates, Denver, Colorado, USA

    Robert Palmer

Grading System for Levels of Evidence Supporting Recommendations in Critical Care Toxicology, Second Edition

Grading System for Levels of Evidence Supporting Recommendations in Critical Care Toxicology, Second Edition

  1. I

    Evidence obtained from at least one properly randomized controlled trial.

  2. II-1

    Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without randomization.

  3. II-2

    Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case–control analytic studies, preferably from more than one center or research group.

  4. II-3

    Evidence obtained from multiple time series with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled experiments (such as the results of the introduction of penicillin treatment in the 1940s) could also be regarded as this type of evidence.

  5. III

    Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies and case reports, or reports of expert committees.

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Steinritz, D., Thiermann, H. (2016). Sulfur Mustard. In: Brent, J., Burkhart, K., Dargan, P., Hatten, B., Megarbane, B., Palmer, R. (eds) Critical Care Toxicology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20790-2_149-1

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