Abstract
The security proofs of post-quantum cryptographic schemes often consider only classical adversaries. Therefore, whether such schemes are really post-quantum secure remains unknown until the proofs take quantum adversaries into account. Switching to a quantum adversary might require to adapt the security notion. In particular, post-quantum security proofs for schemes which use random oracles have to be in the quantum random oracle model (\(\mathrm {QROM}\)), while classical security proofs are in the random oracle model (\(\mathrm {ROM}\)). We remedy this state of affairs by introducing a framework to obtain post-quantum security of public key encryption schemes which use random oracles. We define a class of encryption schemes, called oracle-simple, and identify game hops which are used to prove such schemes secure in the \(\mathrm {ROM}\). For these game hops, we state both simple and sufficient conditions to validate that a proof also holds in the \(\mathrm {QROM}\). The strength of our framework lies in its simplicity, its generality, and its applicability. We demonstrate this by applying it to the code-based encryption scheme \(\mathrm {ROLLO{\hbox {-}}II}\) (Round 2 NIST candidate) and the lattice-based encryption scheme \(\mathrm {LARA}\) (FC 2019). Thereby we prove that both schemes are post-quantum secure, which had not been shown before.
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Notes
- 1.
We note that the \(\mathrm {IND{\hbox {-}}CPA}\) security of \(\mathrm {LIMA}\) can also be proven in the standard model. This makes its \(\mathrm {pq{\hbox {-}}IND{\hbox {-}}CPA}\) security somewhat trivial, as it avoids the main challenge, that is, the switch from the \(\mathrm {ROM}\) to the \(\mathrm {QROM}\).
- 2.
We do not allow the key generation algorithm access to the random oracle as we are not aware of any scheme which requires it. Besides, proving the resulting game hop would be trivial as in case \( \mathtt {KGen}\) has access to the random oracle, the adversary gets access to the random oracle only after receiving the public key. Hence, the reduction can trivially reprogram the random oracle unnoticeable for the adversary.
- 3.
This property is required to get a meaningful bound from applying the one-way to hiding lemma. Since we are not aware of any \(\mathrm {PKE}\) scheme which does not satisfy this requirement, we do not consider it a restriction.
- 4.
In fact, we could relax the requirement to \(\mathtt {f}\) being bijective, however, we are not aware of a scheme where \(\mathtt {f}\) is bijective and not the identity.
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Acknowledgements
We thank Nina Bindel and Lucas Schabhüser for insightful discussions. We also thank an anonymous reviewer for valuable feedback on an earlier version of this paper. This work was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) – SFB 1119 – 236615297 and by the German Ministry of Education, Research and Technology in the context of the project Aquorypt (grant number 16KIS1022).
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Krämer, J., Struck, P. (2020). Encryption Schemes Using Random Oracles: From Classical to Post-Quantum Security. In: Ding, J., Tillich, JP. (eds) Post-Quantum Cryptography. PQCrypto 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 12100. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44223-1_29
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