Abstract
The major physiognomic and ecological categories of the lichen-rich, epigeic communities in the boreal (taiga) and arctic (tundra) zones are defined and their syntaxonomy and ecology in Europe, Asia and North America is reviewed. In the boreal and hemiarctic areas open, dry, acidophytic lichen woodlands are widespread, especially on sandy habitats. Their epigeic lichen synusiae are usually dominated by four fruticoseCladina species, being extremely homogeneous in species composition and structure throughout the boreal zone, while the dominant trees and the other vascular plant flora of the woodlands are geographically more variable. No phytosociological classification system exists that would cover most of these communities over the circumpolar regions. Very similar communities, though much more poorly known, are found on thin soils over Precambrian rock outcrops. Other sites to produce epigeic lichen communities include open sand dunes, treeless heathlands, drier bogs and many seral stages, like those on road banks. Boreal lichen-rich communities on eutrophic soils may be developed in semiarid regions, in particular. In the Arctic, lichens are common in most communities, and the driest ones are regularly lichen-dominated, whether acidophytic or eutrophytic, chionophytic or achionophytic. Detailed syntaxonomic systems for their classification have been developed, especially in Greenland and Scandinavian mountains (in oroarctic zones in the latter regions). The richest fruticose lichen areas are in continental, hemiarctic timberline regions in northern Siberia and Canada. The southern and middle arctic subzones are also characterized by many macrolichens, such asCetraria cucullata, C. nivalis, Alectoria ochroleuca, andThamnolia vermicularis, but everywhere also small, crustose lichens are common on soil, such asRinodina turfacea andLopadium pezizoideum, which are often overlooked in vegetation analyses. The presence of microlichens and the formation of mosaic micropatterns of soil lichen communities is particularly typical of the northern arctic subzone. The conservation problems of the boreal and arctic lichen communities include overgrazing by reindeer or caribou, which has caused delichenization in some regions, extensive forest and tundra fires, use of heavy transport vehicles in forestry and tundra operations, and, locally, heavy industrial air pollution.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aaltonen, V. T. 1919. Kangasmetsien luonnollisesta uudistumisesta Suomen Lapissa (Über die natürlichen Verjüngung der Heidewälder im finnischen Lappland).- Comm. Inst. Quaest. For. Finl. 1: 1–319.
Addison, P. A. & Bliss, L. C. 1980. Summer climate, microclimate, and energy budget of a polar semidesert on King Christian Island, N.W.T., Canada. Arctic Alpine Res. 12: 161–170.
Ahti, T. 1959. Studies on the caribou lichen stands of Newfoundland. Ann. Bot. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 30(4): 1–44.
Ahti, T. 1961a. Taxonomic studies on reindeer lichens (Cladonia, subgenusCladina). Ann. Bot. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 32(1): 1–160.
Ahti, T. 1961b. Open boreal woodland subzone and its relation to reindeer husbandry. Arch. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 16(Suppl.): 91–93.
Ahti, T. 1977. Lichens of the boreal coniferous zone. In: Lichen Ecology (ed. M.R.D., Seaward): 145–181. Academic Press, London.
Ahti, T. 1980. Definition and subdivision of the Subarctic. A circumpolar view. Bull. Can. Bot. Assoc. 13(2, Suppl.): 3–10.
Ahti, T. 1983. Lichens. In: Biogeography and Ecology of the Island of Newfoundland (ed. G.R., South): 319–360. Dr W. Junk Publ., The Hague.
Ahti, T., Hämet-Ahti, L. & Jalas, J. 1968. Vegetation zones and their sections in northwestern Europe. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 5: 169–211.
Ahti, T. & Hepburn, R. L. 1967. Preliminary studies on woodland caribou range, especially on lichen stands, in Ontario. Ont. Dept. Lands Forests Res. Rep. (Wildlife) 74: 1–134.
Ahti, T. & Hyvönen, S. 1985.Cladina stygia, a common, overlooked species of reindeer lichen. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 22: 223–229.
Albertson, N. 1950. Das grosse südliche Alvar der Insel Öland. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 44: 269–331.
Aleksandrova, V. D. 1956. Rastitel'nost' yuzhnogo ostrova Novoy Zemli mezhdu 70°56′ i 72°12′ s. sh. In: Rastitel'nost' Kraynego Severa SSSR i ee osvoenie (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov) 2: 187–306. Izd. AN SSSR, Moskva & Leningrad.
Aleksandrova, V. D. 1963. Ocherk flory i rastitel'nosti o. Bol'shogo Lyakhovskogo. Trudy Arkt. Antarkt. nauchnoissled. inst. 224: 6–36.
Aleksandrova, V. D. 1969. Klassifikatsiya rastitel'nosti. Obzor printsipov klassifikatsionnykh sistem v raznykh geobotanicheskikh shkolakh. 273 pp. Nauka, Leningrad.
Aleksandrova, V. D. 1970. Nadzemnaya i podzemnaya massa rasteniy v soobschchestvakh raznykh podzon Arktiki. In: Biologicheskie osnovy ispol'zovaniya prirody Severa (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov), pp. 6–13. Komi knizhniy izd., Syktyvkar.
Aleksandrova, V. D. 1973. Russian approaches to classification. In: Ordination and Classification of Communities (ed. R. H., Whittaker), Handbook of vegetation science 5: 495–527. Dr W. Junk Publ, The Hague.
Aleksandrova, V. D. 1977. Geobotanicheskoe rayonirovanie arktiki i Antarktiki. Komarovskie chteniya 29: 1–188.
Aleksandrova, V. D. 1983. Rastitel'nost' polyarnykh pustyn' SSSR. 143 pp. Nauka, Leningrad.
Almquist, E. 1929. Upplands vegetation och flora. Acta Phytogeogr. Suec. 1: 1–623.
Alvin, K. L. 1960. Observations on the lichen ecology of South Haven Peninsula, Studland Heath, Dorset. J. Ecol. 48: 331–339.
Andreev, M. P. 1981. Lishayniki rodovCladina iCladonia Anyuyskogo nagor'ya (Lichens of the generaCladina andCladonia from the Anyui-Plateau). Bot. Zhurn. 66: 31–41.
Andreev, V. N. 1932. Tipy tundr zapada Bol'shoy Zemli. Trudy Bot. Muz. AN SSSR 25: 121–268.
Andreev, V. N. 1954. Prirost kormovykh lishaynikov i priemy ego regulirovaniya. Trudy Bot. Inst. AN SSSR (Ser. 3) 9: 11–74.
Andreev, V. N. 1970. Nekotorye geograficheskie zakonomernosti v raspredelenii nadzemnoy fitomassy v tundrovoy zony v svyazi s prodvizheniem na sever drevesnokustarnikovoy rastitel'nosti. In: Biologicheskie osnovy ispol'zovaniya prirody Severa (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov): 6–13. Komi knizhnyi izd., Syktyvkar.
Andreev, V. N. 1980. Nekotoyre dannye o delikhenizatsii tundry. In: Rastitel'nost' i pochvy subarkticheskoy tundry (ed. V. N., Andreev), pp. 201–205. Nauka, Novosibirsk.
Andreev, V. N. & Perfil'eva, V. I. 1980. Rastitel'nost Nizhnekolymskoy tundry. In: Rastitel'nost' i pochvy subarkticheskoy tundry (ed. V. N., Andreev), pp. 5–43. Nauka, Novosibirsk.
Anonymous 1980. Vegetationstyper i Norden. Nordiska ministerrådet, Lund.
Auclair, A. N. D. 1983. The role of fire in lichen-dominated tundra and forest tundra. In: The Role of Fire in Northern Circumpolar Ecosystems (ed. R. W., Wein & D. A., MacLean): 235–256. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Babb, T. A. & Bliss, L. C. 1974. Effects of physical disturbance on arctic vegetation in the Queen Elizabeth Islands. J. Appl. Ecol. 11: 549–562.
Barkman, J. J. 1973. Synusial approaches to classification. In: Ordination and classification of communities (ed. R. H., Whittaker). Handbook of vegetation science 5: 437–491. Dr W. Junk, The Hague.
Barkman, J. J., Moravec, J. & Rauschert, S. 1986. Code of phytosociological nomenclature. 2nd ed. Vegetatio 67: 145–195.
Bates, J. W. 1978. The influence of metal availability on the bryophyte and macrolichen vegetation of four rock types on Skye and Rhum. J. Ecol. 66: 457–482.
Bates, J. W. 1982. Quantitative approaches to bryophyte ecology. In: Bryophyte Ecology (ed. A. J. E., Smith): 1–44. Chapman & Hall, London.
Bliss, L. C., Heal, O. W. & Moore, J. J. (eds.) 1981. Tundra ecosystems: a comparative analysis. 813 pp. The International Biological Programme 25. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge etc.
Bliss, L. C. & Svoboda, J. 1984. Plant communities and plant production in the western Queen Elizabeth Islands. Holarctic Ecol. 7: 325–344.
Bliss, L. C., Svoboda, J. & Bliss, D. I. 1984. Polar deserts, their plant cover and plant production in the Canadian High Arctic. Holarctic Ecol. 7: 305–324.
Blouin, J.-L. & Grandtner, M. M. 1971. Étude écologique et cartographie de la végétation du comté de Rivière-du-Loup. Québec Minist. Terres Forêts Serv. Rech. Mém. 6: 1–369.
Bøcher, T. W. 1933. Studies on the vegetation of the east coast of Greenland.-Meddel. Grønland 104(4): 1–56.
Bøcher, T. W. 1943. Studies on the plant geography of the North Atlantic heath formation II. Danish dwarf shrub communities in relation to those of northern Europe.- Biol. Skr. 2(7): 1–130.
Bøcher, T. W. 1954. Oceanic and continental vegetational complexes in Southwest Greenland.-Meddel. Grønland 124(8): 1–336.
Bøcher, T. W. 1959. Floristic and ecological studies in middle West Greenland.-Meddel. Grønland 156(5): 1–68.
Bøcher, T. W. 1963. Phytogeography of middle West Greenland.-Meddel. Grønland 148(3): 1–289.
Brady, J. 1968. The reindeer industry in Alaska. Alaska Rev. Business Econ. Conditions 5: 1–20.
Braun-Blanquet, J., Sissingh, G. & Vlieger, J. 1939. Klasse der Vaccino-Piceetea (Nadelholz-und Vaccinienheiden-Verbände der eurosibirisch-nordamerikanishen Region). Prodr. Pflanzenges. 6: 1–123.
Bringer, K.-G. 1961. Den lågalpinaDryas-hedens differentiering och standårtsekologi inom Torneträsk-området. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 55: 349–584.
Brossard, T., Deruelle, S., Nimis, P. L. & Petit, P. 1984. An interdisciplinary approach to vegetation mapping on lichen-dominated systems in high-arctic environment, Ny Ålesund (Svalbard). Phytocoenologia 12: 433–453.
Burbanck, M. P. & Phillips, D. L. 1983. Evidence of plant succession on granite outcrops of the Georgia Piedmont. Amer. Midl. Nat. 109: 94–104.
Burbanck, M. P. & Platt, R. B. 1964. Granite outcrop communities of the Piedmont Plateau in Georgia. Ecology 45: 292–306.
Cajander, A. K. 1949. Forest types and their significance. Acta For. Fenn. 56: 1–71.
Carroll, S. B. & Bliss, L. C. 1982. Jack pine-lichen woodland on sandy soil in northern Saskatchewan and northeastern Alberta. Can. J. Bot. 60: 2270–2282.
Chastukhina, S. A. 1984. Otkrytye rastitel'nye gruppirovki gornykh tundr plato Putorana (sever Srednosibirskogo ploskogor'ya). Bot. Zhurn. 69: 1363–1370.
Chernov, Y. I. 1980. Zhizn' tundry. 236 pp. Mysl', Moskva.
Chernov, Y. I. & Matveeva, N. V. 1979. Zakonomernosti zonal'nogo raspredeleniya soobshchestv na Taymyre. In: Arkticheskie tundry i polyarnye pustiny Taymyra (ed. V. D., Aleksandrova & N. V., Matveeva): 166–200. Nauka, Leningrad.
Churchill, E. D. 1955. Phytosociological and environmental characteristics of some plant communities in the Umiat region of Alaska. Ecology 36: 606–627.
Clayden, S. & Bouchard, A. 1983. Structure and dynamics of conifer-lichen stands on rock outcrops south of Lake Abitibi, Quebec. Can. J. Bot. 61: 850–871.
Comeau, P. L. & Beil, C. E. 1984. Raised bogs on the Cape Breton Plateau. Proc. N.S. Inst. Sci. 34: 41–81.
Coppins, B. J. & Shimwell, D. W. 1971. Variations in cryptogam complement and biomass in dryCalluna heaths of various ages. Oikos 22: 204–209.
Dahl, E. 1957. Rondane, mountain vegetation in South Norway and its relation to the environment. Skr. Norske Vidensk.-Akad. Mat.-naturv. Kl. 3: 1–374.
Dahl, E. 1986. Zonation in arctic and alpine tundra and fellfield ecobiomes. In: Ecosystem theory and application (ed. N., Polunin), pp. 35–62. J. Wiley & Sons, New York.
Damman, A. W. H. 1964. Some forest types of central Newfoundland and their relation to environmental factors. Forest Sci. Monogr. 8: 1–62.
Damman, A. W. H. 1977. Geographical changes and vegetation patterns of raised bogs in the Bay of Fundy region of Maine and New Brunswick. Vegetatio 35: 137–151.
Daniëls, F. J. A. 1982. Vegetation of the Angmagssalik District, Southeast Greenaland IV. Shrub, dwarf shrub and terricolous lichens. Meddel. Gronland, Biosci. 10: 1–78.
Daniëls, F. J. A. 1983. Lichen communities on stumps ofPinus sylvestris L. in the Netherlands. Phytocoenologia 11: 431–444.
Daniëls, F. J. A. 1985. Floristic relationships between plant communities of corresponding habitats in southeast Greenland and alpine Scandinavia. Vegetatio 59: 145–150.
Degelius, G. 1939. Die Flechten von Norra Skaftön. Uppsala Univ. Årsskr. 1939 (11): 1–206.
Degelius, G. 1940. Studien über die Konkurrenzverhältnisse der Laubflechten auf nacktem Fels. Acta Horti Gothoburg. 14: 195–219.
Dmitrieva, S. V. 1973. Sosnovye lesa severo-zapada Karel'skogo Peresheyka. Bot. Zhurn. 58: 1093–1106.
Dubiel, E. & Olech, M. 1985. Vegetation map of the NW part of Sörkappland (Spitsbergen). Zeszyty Naukowe Uniw. Jagiellonskiego 756: 57–68.
Du, Rietz, G. E. 1921. Zur methodologischen Grundlage der modernen Pflanzensoziologie. 272 pp. A. Holzhausen, Wien.
Du, Rietz, G. E. 1925. Zur Kenntnis der flechtenreichen Zwergstrauchheiden im kontinentalen Südnorwegen. Svenska Växtsociol. Sällsk. Handl. 4: 1–80.
Du, Rietz, G. E. 1931. Studier över vinddriften på snöfält i de skandinaviska fjällen. Ett bidrag till de nordiska fjäll-lavarnas spridningsbiologi. Bot. Not. 1931: 31–44.
Du, Rietz, G. E. 1932. Zur Vegetationsökologie der ostschwedischen Küstenfelsen. Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 19 (Erg.-bd.): 61–112.
Ebeling, F. 1978. Nordsvenska skogstyper. Sveriges Skogsvårdsförb. Tidskr. 76: 340–381.
Ellenberg, H. 1982. Vegetation Mitteleuropas mit den Alpen in ökologischer Sicht. 989 pp. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart.
Elvebakk, A. 1984. Vegetation pattern and ecology of siliceous boulder snow beds on Svalbard. Polarforschung 54: 9–20.
Esseen, P.-A. 1983. Ecology of lichens in boreal coniferous forests with reference to spatial and temporal patterns. Dissertation, Univ. Umeå.
Eurola, S. 1962. Über die regionale Einteilung der südfinnischen Moore. Ann. Bot. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 33: 1–243.
Eurola, S. 1968. Über die Fjeldheidevegetation in den Gebieten von Isfjorden und Hornsund in Westspitzbergen. Aquilo, Ser. Bot. 7: 1–56.
Eurola, S. 1971. Die Vegetation einer Sturzhalds (Sveagruva, Spitzbergen, 77° 35′ n. Br.). Aquilo, Ser. Bot. 10: 8–28.
Eurola, S. 1974. The plant ecology of Northern Kiölen, aretic or alpine? Aquilo, Ser. Bot. 13: 10–22.
Eurola, S. & Hakala, A. V. K. 1977. The bird cliff vegetation of Svalbard. Aquilo, Ser. Bot. 15: 1–18.
Fabiszewski, J. 1975. East Canadian peat bog ecosystems and the biological role of their lichens. Phytocoenosis 4: 1–94.
Faltynowicz, W. 1980. Changes in the ground lichen flora with respect to the age of pine plantations in the Cladonio-Pinetum habitat. Zesz. Nauk. Univ. Gdańsk. (Biol.) 2: 81–90.
Faltynowicz, W. 1986. The dynamics and role of lichens in a managedCladonia-Scotch pine forest (Cladonio-Pinetum). Monogr. Bot. 69: 1–96.
Fedorchuk, V.N., Dyrenkov, S.A., Chertov, O.V., Mel'nitskaya, G.B. & Ryabinin, B.N. 1974. Opyt primeneniya kombinirovannogo metoda vydeleniya lesotipologicheskikh edinits v severnoy chasti Karel'skogo Peresheyka. Ekologiya 5(6): 49–56.
Folkeson, L. 1984. Deterioration of the moss and lichen vegetation in a forest polluted by heavy metals. Ambio 13: 37–39.
Foster, D. R. 1983. The history and pattern of fire in the boreal forest of southeastern Labrador. Can. J. Bot. 61: 2459–2471.
Foster, D. R. 1985. Vegetation development following fire inPicea mariana (Black Spruce)-Pleurozium forests of south-eastern Labrador, Canada. J. Ecol. 73: 517–534.
Foster, D. R. & Glaser, P. H. 1986. The raised bogs of South-Eastern Labrador, Canada: Classification, distribution, vegetation and recent dynamics. J. Ecol. 74: 47–71.
Frey, E. 1927. Bemerkungen über die Flechtenvegetation Skandinaviens, verglichen mit derjenigen der Alpen. Veröff. Geobot. Inst. Rübel 1926: 210–259.
Frey, T. E. A. 1973. The Finnish school and forest site types. In: Ordination and Classification of Communities (ed. R. H., Whittaker) Handbook of vegetation science 5: 403–433. Dr W. Junk Publ., The Hague.
Gaudreau, L. 1979. La végétation et les sols des collines Tanginan, Abitibi-Ouest, Québec. Études Écol. Univ. Laval 1: 1–391.
Gelting, P. 1955. West GreenlandDryas integrifolia community rich in lichens. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 49: 295–313.
Getsen, M. V. 1983. Sporovye rasteniya v ekosistemakh Kraynego Severa SSSR. Bot. Zhurn. 68: 10–19.
Gimingham, C. H., Chapman, S. B. & Webb, N. R. 1978. European heathlands. In: Heathlands and Related Shrublands of the World (ed. R. L., Specht): 365–413. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Gjaerevoll, O. 1956. The plant communities of the Scandinavian alpine snow-beds. Kongl. Norske Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. 1: 1–405.
Gorodkov, B. N. 1956. Rastitel'nost' i pochvy o. Kotel'nogo (Novosibirskiy arkhipelag). In: Rastitel'nost' Kraynego Severa SSSR i ce osvoenie (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov) 2: 7–132. Izd. AN SSSR, Moskva & Leningrad.
Gorodkov, B. N. 1958. Pochvenno-rastitel'nyy pokrov ostrova Vrangelya. In: Rastitel'nost' Kraynego Severa SSSR i ce osvoenie (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov) 3: 5–94. Izd. AN SSSR, Moskva & Leningrad.
Grelsson, G. 1986. Vegetational changes on two eroding banks of a short-term regulated river reservoir in northern Sweden. Nord. J. Bot. 5: 581–614.
Gribova, S. A., Isachenko, T. I. & Lavrenko, E. M. (eds.) 1980. Rastitel'nost' evropeyskoy chasti SSSR. 429 pp. Nauka, Leningrad.
Grime, J. P. 1977. Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory. Amer. Nat. 111: 1169–1194.
Haapasaari, M. 1988. North Fennoscandian heath vegetation and its zonation. Acta Bot. Fenn. 135: 1–219.
Hadač, E. 1946. The plant communities of Sassan Quarter, Vestspitsbergen. Stud. Bot. Čechoslov. 7: 127–164.
Hadač, E. 1972. Fell-field and heath communities of Reykjanes Peninsula, SW Iceland (Plant communities of Reykjanes Peninsula 5). Preslia 7: 349–380.
Hämet-Ahti, L. 1963. Zonation of the mountain birch forests in northernmost Fennoscandia. Ann. Bot. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 34(4): 1–127.
Hämet-Ahti, L. 1976. Bioticheskie podrazdeleniya boreal'noy zony. Geobot. Kartogr. 1975: 51–58.
Hämet-Ahti, L. 1979. The dangers of using the timberline as ‘zero line’ in comparative studies on altitudinal vegetation zones. Phytocoenologia 6: 49–54.
Hämet-Ahti, L. 1981. The boreal zone and its biotic subdivision. Fennia 159: 69–75.
Hansen, E. S. 1978. Notes on occurrence and distribution of lichens in South East Greenland. Meddel. Grønland 204(4): 1–71.
Hansen, E. S. 1978. A comparison between the lichen flora of coastal and inland areas in the Julianehåb District, South Greenland. Meddel. Grønland 204(3): 1–31.
Hansen, E. S. 1982. Lichens from Central East Greenland. Meddel. Grønland Biosci. 9: 1–33.
Hanson, H. C. 1956. Characteristics of some grassland, marsh, and other plant communities in western Alaska. Ecol. Monogr. 21: 317–378.
Hanson, W. C. 1966. Radioecological concentration processes characterizing arctic ecosystems. In: Radioecological concentration processes (ed. B., Åberg & F. P., Hungate): 183–191. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Hartmann, H. 1980. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Pflanzenge-sellschaften Spitzbergens. Phytocoenologia 8: 65–147.
Häyrén, E. 1914. Über die Landvegetation und Flora der Meeresfelsen von Tvärminne. Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Bedeutung des Meeres für die Landpflanzen. Acta Soc. Fauna Flora Fenn. 39(1): 1–193.
Helle, T. 1984. Foraging behaviour of the semidomestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.) in relation to snow in Finnish Lapland. Rep. Kevo Subarct. Res. Stat. 19: 35–47.
Helle, T. & Aspi, J. 1983. Effects of winter grazing by reindeer on vegetation. Oikos 40: 337–343.
Helle, T. & Saastamoinen, O. 1979. The winter use of food resources of semidomestic reindeer in northern Finland. Comm. Inst. For. Fenn. 95(6): 1–27.
Helle, T. & Tarvainen, L. 1984. Determination of the winter digging period of semi-domestic reindeer in northern Finland. Rep. Kevo Subarct. Res. Stat. 19: 49–56.
Hoefs, M., Cowan, I. M. & Krajina, V. J. 1975. Phytosociological analysis and synthesis of Sheep Mountain, Southwestern Yukon Territory. Syesis 8 (Suppl. 1): 125–228.
Hofmann, W. 1968. Geobotanische Untersuchungen in Südost-Spitzbergen 1960. In: Ergebnisse der Stauferland-Expedition 1959/1960 (ed. J., Büdel & A., Wirthmann) 8: 1–83. Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden.
Hoogesteger, M. 1984. The effect of trampling on vegetation at four cottages in Torne Lapland, northern Sweden. Rep. Kevo Subarctic Res. Sta. 19: 25–34.
Hustich, I. 1951. The lichen woodlands in Labrador and their importance as winter pastures of domesticated reindeer. Acta Geogr. 12(1): 1–48.
Igoshina, K. N. 1964. Rastitel'nost Urala. Trudy Bot. Inst. AN SSSR (Ser. 3) 16: 83–230.
Ilvessalo, Y. 1956. Suomen metsät vuosista 1921–24 vuosiin 1951–53. Kolmeen valtakunnan metsien inventointiin perustuva tutkimus (The forests of Finland from 1921–1924 to 1951–1953). Comm. Inst. For. Fenn. 108: 1–43.
Ilyina, I. S., Lapshina, E. I., Lavrenko, N. N., Mel'tser, L. I., Romanova, E. A., Bogoyavlenskiy, B. A. & Makhno, V. D 1985. Rastitel'nyy pokrov Zapadno-Sibirskoy ravniny. 249 pp. Nauka, Novosibirsk.
Ipatov, V. S. & Tarkhova, T. N. 1980. O mikroklimate mestoobitaniy mokhovykh i lishaynikovykh sinuziy sosnyaka zelenomoshno-lishaynikovogo. Ekologiya 11(5): 14–20.
Ipatov, V. S. & Tarkhova, T. N. 1983. Vzaymovliyanie mokhovykh i lishaynikovykh sinuziy v zelenomoshno-lishaynikovykh sosnyakakh. Ekologiya 13(1): 20–26.
Jalas, J. 1950. Zur Kausalanalyse der Verbreitung einiger nordischen Os- und Sandpflanzen. Ann. Bot. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 24(1): 1–365.
Jalas, J. 1953. Rokua. Suunnitellun kansallispuiston kasvillisuus ja kasvisto (Vegetation und Flora des geplanten Nationalparks Rokua in Mittelfinnland). Silva Fenn. 81: 1–98.
Jalas, J. 1961a. Regionale Züge in der Felsenvegetation und -flora Ostfennoskandiens. Arch. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 16(Suppl.): 38–49.
Jalas, J. 1961b. Besondere Züge der Vegetation und Flora auf den Osen. Arch. Soc. Zool. Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 16(Suppl.): 25–33.
Jalas, J. & Valpas, A. 1962. Flechtenheide oder Heidewald. Analyse eines Grenzfalls. Arch. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 16(1): 67–74.
James, P. W., Hawksworth, D. L. & Rose, F. 1977. Lichen communities in the British Isles: A preliminary conspectus. In: Lichen Ecology (ed. M. R. D., Seaward): 295–413. Academic Press, London.
Jaseniuk, M. A. & Johnson, E. A. 1982. Peatland vegetation organization and dynamics in the western subarctic, Northwest Territories, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 60: 2581–2593.
Johnson, A. W., Viereck, L. A., Johnson, R. E. & Melchior, H. 1966. Vegetation and flora. In: Environment of the Cape Thompson Region, Alaska (ed. N. J. Wilimowsky & J. N. Wolfe): 277–354. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
Johnson, E. A. 1981. Vegetation organization and dynamics of lichen woodland communities in the Northwest Territories Canada. Ecology 62: 200–215.
Johnson, E. A. & Rowe, J. S. 1975. Fire in the wintering grounds of the Beverley caribou herd. Amer. Midl. Nat. 94: 1–14.
Jong, P.de, Aarssen, L. W. & Turkington, R. 1983. The use of contact sampling in studies of association. J. Ecol. 71: 545–559.
Juraszek, H. 1928. Pflanzensoziologische Studien über die Dünen bei Warschau. Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci. Lett. B 1927: 565–610.
Kalela, A. 1961. Waldvegetationszonen Finnlands und ihre klimatische Paralleltypen. Arch. Soc. Vanamo 16(Suppl.): 65–83.
Kalela, A. 1973. Suomen yleisimpien metsätyyppien floristinen rakenne. In: Kalliola R.: Suomen kasvimaantiede: 260–267. Kirjayhtymä, Helsinki.
Kalb, K. 1970. Flechtengesellschaften der vorderer Ötztaler Alpen. Diss. Bot. 9: 1–118.
Kalliola, R. 1932. Alpiinisesta kasvillisuudesta Kammiki-vialueella Petsamon Lapissa. Ann. Bot. Soc. Vanamo 2(2): 1–121.
Kalliola, R. 1939. Pflanzensoziologische Untersuchungen in der alpinen Stufe Finnisch-Lapplands. Ann. Bot. Soc. Zool. Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 13(2): 1–328.
Karavaev, M. N. 1976. O sostave sinuziy napochvennykh lishaynikov v reliktovnykh stepnykh soobshchestv Yakutii (On the composition of synusium of soil lichens in relic steppe communities of Yakutia).-Bot. Zhurn. 61: 956–961.
Katenin, A. E. 1972. Rastitel'nost' lesotundrovogo statsionara. In: Pochvy i rastitel'nost' Vostochnoevropeyskoy lesotundry 2: 118–259. Rastitel'nost' Kraynego Severa SSSR i ee osvoenie (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov) 11: 118–259. Nauka, Leningrad.
Kauppi, M. 1979. The exploitation ofCladonia stellaris in Finland. Lichenologist 11: 85–89.
Kautto, A., Kärenlampi, L. & Nieminen, M. 1986. Jäkäläisten talvilaidunten kunnon muutos Suomen poronhoitoalueella vuosina 1972–1983. Poromies 53: 28–34.
Kershaw, K. A. 1977. Studies on lichen-dominated systems. 20. An examination of some aspects of the northern boreal lichen woodlands in Canada. Can. J. Bot. 55: 393–410.
Kershaw, K. A. 1978. The role of lichens in boreal tundra transition areas. Bryologist 81: 294–306.
Kershaw, K. A. 1985. Physiological ecology of lichens. 293 pp. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
Kershaw, K. A. & Rouse, W. R. 1973. Studies on lichen dominated systems. 5. A primary survey of a raised beach system in northwestern Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 51: 1285–1307.
Kielland-Lund, J. 1967. Zur Systematik der Kiefernwälder Fennoscandiens. Mitt. florist.-soziol. Arbeitsgem. (NF) 11/12: 127–141.
Kielland-Lund, J. 1973. A classification of Scandinavian forest vegetation for mapping purposes. IBP i Norden 11: 173–206.
Kielland-Lund, J. 1981. Die Waldgesellschaften SO-Norwegens. Phytocoenologia 9: 53–250.
Klement, O. 1955. Prodromus der mitteleuropäischen Flechtengesellschaften. Feddes Rep. Beih. 135: 1–194.
Klement, O. 1959. Zur Soziologie subarktischer Flechtenge-sellschaften. Nova Hedwigia 1: 131–156.
Kobendza, R. 1930. Stosunki fitosocjologiczne Puszczy Kampinoskiej. Plant Pol. 2: 1–200.
Kojima, S. 1978. Vegetation and environment of the central Yukon Territory, Canada. J. Coll. Liberal Arts, Toyama Univ. 11: 93–139.
Korchagin, A.A. 1954. Vliyanie pozharov na lesnuyu rastitel'nost' i vosstanovlenie ee posle pozhara na Evropeyskom Severe. Trudy Bot. Inst. AN SSSR (Ser. 3) 9: 75–149.
Kornaś, J. 1972. Corresponding taxa and their ecological background in the forests of temperate Eurasia and North America. In: Taxonomy, Phytogeography and Evolution (ed. D. H., Valentine): 37–59. Academic Press, London.
Korotkevicz, E. S. 1958. Rastitel'nost' Severnoy Zemli. Bot. Zhurn. 43: 633–644.
Krieger, H. 1937. Die flechtenreichen Pflanzengesellschaften der Mark Brandenburg. Beih. Bot. Centralbl. B 57: 1–76.
Krusenstjerna, E.von 1945. Bladmossflora och bladmoss-vegetation i Uppsala-trakten (Moss flora and moss vegetation in the neighbourhood of Uppsala). Acta Phytogeogr. Suec. 19: 1–250.
Krusenstjerna, E.von 1965. The growth on rock. Acta Phytogeogr. Suec. 50: 144–148.
Kryuchkov, V. V. 1976. Chutkaya Subarktika. 137 pp. Nauka, Moskva.
Kuusipalo, J. 1985: An ecological study of upland forest site classification in southern Finland. Acta For. Fenn. 192: 1–77.
Laasimer, L. 1965. Eesti NSV taimkate. 397 pp. Valgus, Tallinn.
Lakari, O. J. 1920. Tutkimuksia Pohjois-Suomen metsätyypeistä (Untersuchungen über die Waldtypen in Nord-Finnland). Acta For. Fenn. 14: 1–85.
Lambert, J. D. H. & Maycock, P. F. 1968. The ecology of terricolous lichens of the northern conifer-hardwood forests of central eastern Canada. Can. J. Bot. 46: 1043–1078.
Larsen, J. 1965. The vegetation of the Ennadai Lake area, N.W.T.: Studies in subarctic and arctic bioclimatology. Ecol. Monogr. 35: 38–59.
Larson, D. W. & Kershaw, K. A. 1974. Studies on lichen-dominated systems. 7. Interactions of the general lichen-heath with edaphic factors. Can. J. Bot. 52: 1163–1174.
Larson, D. W. & Kershaw, K. A. 1975. Studies on lichen-dominated systems. 11. Lichen-heath and winter snow cover. Can. J. Bot. 53: 621–626.
Lausi, D. & Nimis, P. L. 1985. Roadside vegetation in boreal south Yukon and adjacent Alaska. Phytocoenologia 13: 103–138.
Lemberg, B. 1933. Über die Vegetation der Flugsandgebiete an den Küsten Finnlands. 1. Sukzession. Acta Bot. Fenn. 12: 1–143.
Lindsay, D. C. 1977. Lichens of cold deserts. In: Lichen ecology (ed. M. R. D., Seaward): 183–209. Academic Press, London, New York & San Francisco.
Lokinskaya, M. A. 1967. Lishayniki i ikh rol' v evolyutsii rastitel'nogo pokrova lesotundry. In: Rastitel'nost' i puty ee osvoeniya (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov): 203–206. Nauka, Leningrad.
Looman, J. 1964a. Ecology of lichen and bryophyte communities in Saskatchewan. Ecology 45: 481–491.
Looman, J. 1964b. The distribution of some lichen communities in the Prairie Provinces and adjacent parts of the Great Plains. Bryologist 67: 209–224.
Magnusson, M. 1982. Composition and succession of lichen communities in an inner coastal dune area in southern Sweden. Lichenologist 14: 153–163.
Magnusson, M. 1983. Composition and succession of bryophytes and lichens in an outer coastal dune area in southern Sweden. Cryptogamie, Bryol. Lichenol. 4: 335–355.
Maikawa, E. & Kershaw, K. A. 1976. Studies on lichen-dominated systems. 19. The postfire recovery sequence of black spruce-lichen woodland in the Abitau Lake area, N.W.T. Can. J. Bot. 54: 2679–2687.
Malmström, C. 1956. Kort översikt över svenska skogssamhällen. Medd. Stat. Skost.-inst. 42: 1–23.
Masing, V. V. 1982. Struktura rastitel'nogo pokrova polyarnykh pustyn' Mysa Chelyuskin. Tartu riikliku ülikooli toimetised 590: 3–21.
Mattick, E. 1937. Flechtenvegetation und Flechtenflora des Gebietes der Freien Stadt Danzig. Ber. Westpreussichen Bot.-Zool. Ver. 59: 1–54.
Matuszkiewicz, W. 1962. Zur Systematik der natürlichen Kiefernwälder des mittel- und osteuropäischen Flachlandes. Mitt. florist.-soziol. Arbeitsgem. (NF) 9: 145–180.
Matuszkiewicz, W. & Matuszkiewicz, J. 1973. Przeglad fitosocjologiczny zbiorowisk leśnych Polski. 2. Bory sosnowe (Pflanzensoziologische Übersicht der Waldge-sellschaften von Polen. 2. Die Kiefernwälder), Phytocoenosis 2: 273–356.
Matveeva, N. V. 1979a. Struktura rastitel'nogo pokrova polyarnykh pustyn' poluostrova Taymyr (Mys Chelyuskin). In: Arktischeskie tundry i polyarnye pustyni Taymyra (ed. V. D., Aleksandrova & N. V., Matveeva): 5–27. Nauka, Leningrad.
Matveeva, N. V. 1979b. Flora i rastitel'nost' okrestnostey Bukhty Marii Pronchishehevoy (severo-vostochnyy Taymyr). In: Arkticheskie tundry i polyarnye pustyni Taymyra (ed. V. N., Aleksandrova & N. V., Matveeva): 78–109. Nauka, Leningrad.
Matveeva, N. V. & Zanokha, L. L. 1986. Rastitel'nost' yuzhnykh tundr na zapadnom Taymyre. In: Yuzhnye tundry Taymyra (ed. Y. I., Chernov & N. V., Matveeva): 5–67. Nauka, Leningrad.
McCune, B. & Antos, J. 1981a. Correlation between forest layers in the Swan Valley, Montana. Ecology 62: 1196–1204.
McCune, B. & Antos, J. 1981b. Diversity relationships of forest layers in the Swan Valley, Montana. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 108: 354–361.
Meades, W. J. 1983. Heathlands. In: Biogeography and Ecology of the Island of Newfoundland (ed. G. R., South): 267–318. Dr W. Junk Publ., The Hague.
Mikola, P. 1982. Application of vegetation science to forestry in Finland. In: Application of vegetation science to forestry (ed. G., Jahn): 199–224. Dr W. Junk, The Hague.
Mirkin, B. M. 1984. O paradigmakh v fitotsenologii (On paradigms of phytocoenology). Zhurn. Obshch. Biol. 45: 749–758.
Molenaar, J. G.de 1976. Vegetation of the Angmagssalik District, Southeast Greenland II. Herb and snow-bed vegetation. Meddel. Grønland 198(2): 1–265.
Moser, T. J., Nash, T. H. & Thomson, J. W. 1979. Lichens of Anaktuvuk Pass, Alaska, with emphasis on the impact of caribou grazing. Bryologist 82: 393–408.
Moser, T. J., Nash, T. H. & Clark, W. D. 1980. Effects of a long-term field sulfur dioxide fumigation on Arctic caribou forage lichens. Can. J. Bot. 58: 2235–2240.
Murray, D. F., Murray, B. M., Yurtsev, B. A. & Howenstein, R. 1983. Biogeographic significance of steppe vegetation in subarctic Alaska. Proc. 4th Internat. Permafrost Conf.: 883–888. Washington, D.C.
Myakushko, V. K. 1975. Klasyfikatsiya sosnovykh lisiv Ukrainy (Classification of pine forests of the Ukraine). Ukr. Bot. Zhurn. 32: 283–290.
Myakushko, V. K. 1978. Sosnovi lisy Malogo Polissya (Pine forests of Small Polessie). Ukr. Bot. Zhurn. 35: 284–290.
Neal, M. W. & Kershaw, K. A. 1973a. Studies on lichen-dominated systems. 3. Phytosociology of a raised-beach system near Cape Henrietta Maria, northern Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 51: 1115–1124.
Neal, M. W. & Kershaw, K. A. 1973b. Studies on lichen-cominated systems. 4. The objective analysis of Cape Henrietta Maria raised-beach system. Can. J. Bot. 51: 1177–1190.
Neshataev, Yu.N. & Neshataeva, V.Yu. 1985. Zakonomernosti razmeshchestva soobshchestvPinus pumila (Pinaceae) v Kronotskom gosudarstvennom zapovednike. Bot. Zhurn. 70: 382–389.
Nimis, B. L. 1981a. Epigaeous lichen synusiae in the Yukon Territory. Cryptogamie Bryol. Lichénol. 2: 127–151.
Nimis, P. L. 1981b.Caloplace tominii Saviez, new to North America. Bryologist 84: 222–225.
Nimis, P. L. 1985. Structure and floristic composition of a high aretic tundra: Ny Ålesund (Svalbard Archipelago). Inter-Nord 17: 47–58.
Nordhagen, R. 1943. Sikilsdalen og Norges fjellbeiter. En plantesoslologisk monografi. Bergen Mus. Skr. 22: 1–607.
Nordhagen, R. 1955. Kobresieto-Dryadion in Northern Scandinavia. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 49: 63–87.
Norin, B. N. 1967. Struktura rastitel'nogo pokrova lesotundry. (Predvaritel'noe soobshchenie). In: Rastitel'nost' lesotundry i puty ee osvoeniya. Rastitel'nost' Kraynego Severa i ee osvoenie (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov) 7: 58–75. Nauka, Leningrad.
Norin, B. N. 1978. Ispol'zovanie sinusial'nogo stroeniya rastitel'nogo pokrova dlya florotsenoticheskogo analiza geobotanicheskikh vydelov. Bot. Zhurn. 63: 544–547.
Norin, B. N. (ed.) 1978. Ary-Mas. Prirodnye usloviya, flora i rastitel'nost' samogo severnogo v mire lesnogo massiva. Nauka, Leningrad.
Oksanen, J. 1981. Reindeer lichen (Cladina) vegetation of rock outcrops on a coast-inland transect in south Finland. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 18: 133–154.
Oksanen, J. 1982. Kasvilajien suhde korkeusgradienttiin Tvärminnen seudun kallioiden poronjäkäliköissä (The relation of plants to the altitude gradient in reindeer lichen predominated vegetation of rock outcrops in the Tvärminne area, on the south coast of Finland). Memor. Soc. Fauna Flora Fenn. 58: 53–58.
Oksanen, J. 1983a. Diversity patterns along climatic gradients in the understorey of lichen-rich pine forests in Finland. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 20: 151–155.
Oksanen, J. 1983b. Vegetation of forested inland dunes in North Karelia, eastern Finland. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 20: 281–295.
Oksanen, J. 1984. Interspecific contact and association in sand dune vegetation dominated by bryophytes and lichens. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 21: 189–199.
Oksanen, J. 1986. Succession, dominance and diversity in lichen-rich pine forest vegetation in Finland. Holarctic Ecol. 9: 261–266.
Oksanen, J. & Ahti, T. 1982. Lichen-rich pine forest vegetation in Finland. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 19: 275–301.
Oksanen, L. 1978. Lichen grounds of Finnmarksvidda, northern Norway, in relation to summer and winter grazing by reindeer. Rep. Kevo Subarctic Res. Stat. 14: 64–71.
Olech, M. 1985. Zbiorowiska porostów w wysokogorskich murawach nawapiennych w Tatrach Zachodnych. Uniw. Jagiellonski Kraków, Rozprawy Habilitacyjne 90: 1–132.
Olsson, H. 1974. Studies on South Swedish sand vegetation. Acta Phytogegr. Suec. 60: 1–170.
Paasio, I. 1931. Pohjois-Satakunnan soiden jäkälistä (Über Flechten der Moore in Nord-Satakunta). Ann. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 15: 133–151.
Palmgren, A. 1922. Zur Kenntnis der Florencharacters des Nadelwaldes. Eine pflanzengeographische Studie aus dem Gebiete Ålands. Acta For. Fenn. 22: 1–114.
Passarge, G. & Passarge, H. 1972. Beobachtungen über Wald- und Gebüschgesellschaften im Raum Leningrad. Feddes Rep. 82: 629–657.
Passarge, H., 1956. Die Wälder von Magdeburgerforth (NW-Fläming). Wiss. Abh. 18: 1–112.
Passarge, H. & Hofmann, G. 1968. Pflanzengesellschaften des nordostdeutschen Flachlandes. II. Pflanzensoziologie 16: 1–298.
Payette, S., Ouzilleau, J. & Filion, L. 1975. Zonation des conditions d'enneigement en toundra forestière, Baie d'Hudson, Nouveau-Québec. Can. J. Bot. 53: 1021–1030.
Pierce, W. G. & Kershaw, K. A. 1976. Studies on lichendominated systems. 17. The colonization of young raised beaches in NW Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 54: 1672–1683.
Piin, T. H. 1979a. Napochvennye lishayniki mysa Chelyuskin. In: Arkticheskie tundry i polyarnye pustyny Taymyra (ed. V. D., Aleksandrova & N. V., Matveeva): 61–73. Nauka, Leningrad.
Piin, T. H. 1979b. Napochvenyye lishayniki okrestnostey Bukhty Marii Pronchischevoy (severo-vostochnyy Taymyr). In: Arkticheskie tundry i polyarnye pustyny Taymyra (ed. V. D., Aleksandrova & N. V., Matveeva): 140–143. Nauka, Leningrad.
Piin, T. H. 1982. Napochvennye lishayniki i ikh mestoobitaniya na Myse Chelyuskin (Taymyr). Tartu riikliku ülikooli toimetised 590: 22–38.
Piin, T. H. & Trass, H. H. 1971. Napochvennye lishayniki okrestnostey Tarey (Zapadnyy Taymyr). In: Biogeotsenozy Taymyrskoy tundry i ikh produktivnost (ed. B. A., Tikhomirov): 151–160. Nauka, Leningrad.
Polunin, N. 1948. Botany of the Canadian Eastern Arctic 3. Vegetation and ecology. Bull. Natl. Mus. Canada 104: 1–304.
Polunin, N. 1951. The real Arctic: Suggestions for its delimitation, subdivision and characterization. J. Ecol. 39: 308–315.
Ponyatovskaya, V. M. 1964. Uchet obiliya i osobennosti razmeshcheniya vidov v estesvennykh rastitel'nykh soobshchestvakh. Polevaya Geobotanika 3: 209–299.
Rabotnov, T. A. 1936. Ekologicheskie nablyudeniya nad lishaynikami v yuzhnoy Yakutii. Sov. Bot. 1936: 149–153.
Raup, H. M. & Argus, G. W. 1982. The Lake Athabasca sand dunes of northern Saskatchewan and Alberta, Canada. 1. The land and vegetation. Nat. Mus. Can. Publ. Bot. 12: 1–96.
Richardson, D. H. S. & Finegan, E. J. 1977. Studies on the lichens of Truelove Lowland. In: Truelove Lowland, Devon Island, Canada: A high arctic ecosystem (ed. L. C., Bliss): 245–262. Univ. Alberta Press, Edmonton.
Ritchie, J. C. 1960. The vegetation of northern Manitoba. 4. The lower Hayes River region. Can. J. Bot. 38: 769–788.
Ritchie, J. C. 1982. The modern and late-Quaternary vegetation of the Doll Creek area, North Yukon, Canada. New Phytol. 90: 563–603.
Robinson, H. R., 1959. Lichen succession in abandoned fields in the Piedmont of North Carolina. Bryologist 62: 254–259.
Rønning, O. I. 1965. Studies in Dryadion of Svalbard. Norsk Polarinst. Skr. 134: 1–52.
Rousseau, J. 1952. Les zones biologiques de la péninsule Québec-Labrador et l'hémiarctique. Can. J. Bot. 30: 436–474.
Rübel, E. 1927. Einige skandinavische Vegetationsprobleme. Veröffentl. Geobot. Inst. Rübel Zürich 4: 19–41.
Runge, F. 1984. Vegetationschwankungen in einem Ericetum cladonietosum 2. Tuexenia 4: 255–256.
Ruuhijärvi, R. 1960. Uber die regionale Einteilung der nordfinnischen Moore. Ann. Bot. Soc. Zool.-Bot. Fenn. Vanamo 31(1): 1–360.
Ružička, M. 1961. Flechten-Kiefernwald auf den Flugsanden der Tiefebene Záhorská Nížina (Cladonio-Pinetum zahoricum). Biológia 16: 881–894.
Ružička, M. 1964. Geobotanische Verhältnisse der Wälder im Sandgebiete der Tiefebene Záhorská Nížina (Südwestslovakei). Biol. Prace 10(1): 1–119.
Rykova, Y. V. 1980. Rasprostranenie i zapasy kustistykh lishaynikov na severo-vostoke Yakutii. In: Rastiel'nost' i pochvy subarkticheskoy tundry (ed. V. N., Andreev): 124–139. Nauka, Novosibirsk.
Rysin, L. P. 1975. Sosnovye lesa Evropeyskoy chasti SSSR. 212 pp. Nauka, Moskva.
Rysin, L. P. 1982. Lesnaya tipologiya v SSSR. 216 pp. Nauka, Moskva.
Sarvas, R. 1937. Havaintoja kasvillisuuden kehityksestä Pohjois-Suomen kuloaloilla (Beobachtungen über die Entwicklung der Vegetation auf den Waldbrandflächen Nord-Finnlands). Silva Fenn. 44: 1–64.
Scamoni, A. 1960. Waldgesellschaften und Waldstandorte. 326 pp. Berlin.
Schubert, R. 1960. Die zwergstrauchreichen azidiphilen Pflanzengesellschaften Mitteldeutschlands. Pflanzensoziologie 11: 1–235.
Schuster, R. M., Steere, W. C. & Thomson, J. W. 1959. The terrestrial cryptogams of northern Ellesmere Island. National Mus. Canada Bull. 164: 1–132.
Scotter, G. W. 1964. Effects of forest fires on the winter range of barren-ground caribou in northern Saskatchewan. Wildl. Manag. Bull. Ottawa (Ser. 1) 18: 1–111.
See, M. G. & Bliss, L. C. 1980. Alpine lichen-dominated communities in Alberta and Yukon. Can. J. Bot. 58: 2148–2170.
Sepponen, P. 1985. The ecological classification of sorted forest soils of varying genesis in northern Finland. Comm. Inst. For. Fenn. 129: 1–77.
Sheard, J. W. & Geale, D. W. 1983a. Vegetation studies at Polar Bear Pass, Bathurst Island, N.W.T. 1. Classification of plant communities. Can. J. Bot. 61: 1618–1636.
Sheard, J. W. & Geale, D. W. 1983b. Vegetation studies at Polar Bear Pass. Bathurst Island, N.W.T. 2. Vegetation-environment relationships. Can. J. Bot. 61: 1637–1646.
Shcherbakov, I. P. 1975. Lesnoy pokrov Severo-Vostoka SSSR. 344 pp. Nauka, Novosibirsk.
Sigafoos, R. S. 1952. Frost action as a primary physical factor in tundra plant communities. Ecology 33: 480–487.
Sjörs, H. 1963. Bogs and fens on Attawapiskat River, northern Ontario. Bull. Nat. Mus. Can 186: 45–133.
Skult, H. 1956. Skogsbotaniska studier i Skärgårdshavet med speciell hänsyn i förhållandena i Korpo utskär (Studies on forest botany of ‘Skärgårdshavet’ with special reference to the conditions of the outer archipelago of Korpo). Acta Bot. Fenn. 57: 1–244.
Slinchenkova, E. Y. 1984. Kriofitno-stepnye soobshchestva srednego techeniya r. Amguemy (peresheek Chukotskogo poluostrova). Bot. Zhurn. 69: 1509–1519.
Smagin, V. N., Il'inskaya, S. A., Nazimova, D. I., Novosel'tseva, I. F. & Cherednikova, Yu.S. 1963. Tipy lesov gor Yuzhnoy Sibiri. 336 pp. Nauka, Novosibirisk.
Smith, R. I. L. & Gimingham, C. H. 1976. Classification of cryptogamic communities in the maritime Antarctic. Br. Antarct. Surv. Bull. 43: 25–47.
Sokołowski, A. W. 1970. Characterystyka fitosocjologiczna i stanowisko systematiczne borów chrobotkowych Polski (Phytosociological characteristics ofCladonia — pine woods of North-West Poland). Prace Inst. Bad. Leśn. 368: 3–13.
Strang, R. 1973. Succession of unburned subarctic woodlands. Can. J. For. Res. 3: 140–143.
Suominen, J. 1969. The plant cover of Finnish railway embankments and the ecology of their species. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 6: 183–235.
Suominen, J. & Ahti, T. 1966. The occurrence of the lichensCladonia nemoxyna, C. glauca andC. polycarpoides in Finland. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 3: 418–423.
Taran, I. V. 1973. Sosnovye lesa Zapadnoy Sibiri. 292 pp. Nauka, Novosibirsk.
Thomson, J. W. 1979. Lichens of the Alaskan Arctic Slope. 314 pp. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Buffalo & London.
Thomson, J. W. 1982. Lichen vegetation and ecological patterns in the high arctic. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 53: 361–364.
Thomson, J. W. 1984. American arctic lichens. 1. The macrolichens. 504 pp. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
Tobolewski, Z. 1963. Materialy do znajomości borów chrobotkowych północno-zachodniej Polski (Phytosociological materials of theCladonia — pine woods of North-West Poland). Bad. Fiziogr. Polska Zach. 12: 193–211.
Trass, H. H. 1965. Lishayniki al'varov Estonii (Lichens on the alvars of Estonia). IV Simp. Pribaltiysk. Mikol. Likhenol.: 199–202. AN ESSR, Tartu.
Trass, H. H. 1976. Geobotanika. Istoriya i sovremennye tendentsii razvitiya (Vegetation science. History and contemporary trends of development). 252 pp. Nauka, Leningrad.
Trass, H. H. 1981. Composition and anthropogenous changes of the lichen flora and vegetation in Estonia. In: Anthropogenous changes in the plant cover of Estonia (ed. L., Laasimer): 135–153. Acad. Sci. Estonian S.S.R., Tartu.
Trass, H. H. & Maimer, N. 1973. North European approaches to classification. In: Ordination and classification of communities (ed. R. H., Whittaker): Handbook of vegetation science 5: 529–574. Dr W. Junk, The Hague.
Tuhkanen, S. 1980. Climatic parameters and indices in plant geography. Acta Phytogeogr. Suec. 67: 1–105.
Tuhkanen, S. 1984. A circumboreal system of climatic-phytogeographic regions. Acta Bot. Fenn. 127: 1–50.
Tüxen, R. 1951. Eindrücke während der pflanzengeographische Exkursionen durch Süd-Schweden. Vegetatio 3: 149–172.
Tyrtikov, A. P. 1974. Dinamika rastitel'nogo pokrova i razvitie vechnoy merzloty v Zapadnoy Sibiri. 198 pp. Izd. Moskovskogo Univ., Moskva.
Tyrtikov, A. P. 1983. Redkostoynie lesa i redkoles'ya severa Zapadnoy Sibiri. In: Ekologo-tsenoticheskie i geograficheskie osobennosti rastitel'nosti (ed. A. G., Voronov & G. I., Dokhman): 210–217. Nauka, Moskva.
Vartiainen, T. 1980. Succession of island vegetation in the land uplift area of the northernmost Gulf of Bothnia. Finland. Acta Bot. Fenn. 115: 1–105.
Vasander, H. 1981. The length growth rate, biomass and production ofCladonia arbuscula andC. rangiferina in a raised bog in southern Finland. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 18: 237–243.
Vasil'ev, V. N. 1956. Rastitel'nost' Anadyrskogo kraya. 219 pp. Izd. AN SSSR, Moskva & Leningrad.
Vasilevich, V. I. 1961. K tipologii lishaynikovykh i brusnichnykh borov. Vestn. Leningr. Univ. 9: 5–15.
Walker, D. A., Everett, K. R., Webber, P. J. & Brown, J. 1980. Geobotanical atlas of the Prudhoe Bay Region, Alaska. Cold Regions Res. Eng. Lab. Rep. 80–14: 1–69. Hanover, NH.
Williams, M. E., Rudolph, E. D., Schofield, E. A. & Prasher, D. C. 1978. The role of lichens in the structure, productivity and mineral cycling of the wet coastal Alaskan tundra. In: Vegetation and production ecology of an Alaskan arctic tundra (ed. L. L., Tieszen). Ecol. Stud. 29: 185–206. Springer, New York, Heidelberg & Berlin.
Wirth, V. 1980. Flechtenflora. 552 pp. Uni-Taschenbücher 1062. Ulmer, Stuttgart.
Wojterski, T. 1964. Bory sosnowe na wydmach nadmorskich na polskim wybrzeżu. Pozn. Towarz. Przyjac. Nauk Prace Kom. Biol. 28(2): 1–217.
Wolak, J. 1959. Fitosocjologiczne zróżnicowanie borów sosnowych na obszarze Krainy Wyżów Środkowopolskich. Prace Inst. Bad. Leśn. 191: 1–51.
Yakovlev, F. S. & Voronova, V. S. 1959. Tipy lesov Karelii iikh prirodnoe rayonirovanie. 190 pp. Gosizdat Karel'skoy ASSR, Petrozavodsk.
Yarranton, G. A. 1966. A plotless method of sampling vegetation. J. Ecol. 54: 229–237.
Yarranton, G. A. 1967a. Principal components analysis of data from saxicolous bryophyte vegetation at Steps Bridge, Devon. 1. A quantitative assessment of variation in the vegetation. Can. J. Bot. 45: 93–115.
Yarranton, G. A. 1967b. A quantitative study of the bryophyte and macrolichen vegetation of the Dartmoor granite. Lichenologist 3: 392–408.
Yurtsev, B. A. 1978. Nekotorye voprosy tipologii stepnykh soobshchestv Severo-Vostochnoy Azii. Bot. Zhurn. 63: 1566–1578.
Yurtsev, B. A. 1981. Reliktovye stepnye kompleksy Severo-Vostochnoy Azii. 168 pp. Nauka, Novosibirsk.
Yurtsev, B. A. 1982. Relics of the xerophyte vegetation of Beringia in northeastern Asia. In: Paleoecology of Beringia: 157–177. Academic Press, London.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ahti, T., Oksanen, J. Epigeic lichen communities of taiga and tundra regions. Vegetatio 86, 39–70 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045134
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00045134