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Optimizing Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Protocols to Promote Long-Term Learning

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Abstract

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a form of non-invasive brain stimulation that has the potential to induce polarity-specific changes in neural activity within targeted brain regions. There is growing interest in the use of this technology for the enhancement of higher cognitive functions, and application of tDCS directly before or concomitant with task performance has shown promise in modulating a range of behavioral outcomes, including motor skill acquisition, working memory performance, and implicit and explicit learning. The proposed mechanism for the observed enhancements is a temporary and targeted shift in the excitability of the cortical regions that subserve the relevant tasks, lasting from minutes up to about an hour after cessation of stimulation. Although empirical work does support at least a partial role for this mechanism, an arguably more potent but relatively underexplored phenomenon is thought to occur in the hours or days after stimulation—that is, a facilitation of consolidative processes. Here, we review the literature describing the nature of tDCS-enhanced consolidation and argue that some of the mixed results among the single-session studies that currently dominate the extant literature may be explained by a failure to take advantage of these potentially powerful offline effects. Accordingly, we further contend that the full potential of tDCS cannot be truly realized without a longitudinal design which allows for tDCS to act directly upon learning by promoting consolidation between sessions. Finally, we review preliminary evidence that these consolidation effects can be even further enhanced via strategically spaced out stimulation sessions, which take advantage of a long-held tenet in the literature that distributed learning produces better outcomes than massed learning. We conclude by proposing potential study designs to encourage the use of tDCS as more than merely a method to promote temporary enhancement, but also a technique to enhance long-term learning.

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Notes

  1. In both studies, the first session was the only one that showed within-session effects, suggesting that online effects may saturate early on in an intervention, or may not be reliable. Additionally, we note that a similar paradigm (Prichard et al. 2014) with a different motor task showed predominantly online, but not offline, effects, suggesting some task-specificity in the degree of consolidation.

  2. Hill et al. (2016) actually found a significant tDCS effect only with offline stimulation, but not online, in healthy young adults. However, the effect sizes are comparable and not different from each other. Also, sample sizes are trhree to six times greater in the offline studies compared to online, thus biasing interpretations based on significance alone. We interpret the data to suggest no difference between online and offline stimulation.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California, Irvine, 2201 Social & Behavioral Sciences Gateway Building, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA

    Jacky Au & Susanne M. Jaeggi

  2. MIND Research Institute, Irvine, CA, 92617, USA

    Jacky Au & Martin Buschkuehl

  3. Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    Carley Karsten

  4. School of Education, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    Susanne M. Jaeggi

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Correspondence to Jacky Au.

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This work was supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Grant No. DGE-1321846 to J.A. J.A. and M.B. are employed at the MIND Research Institute, whose interest is related to this work and S.M.J. has an indirect financial interest in MIND Research Institute. No other conflicts of interests or sources of funding are declared.

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Au, J., Karsten, C., Buschkuehl, M. et al. Optimizing Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Protocols to Promote Long-Term Learning. J Cogn Enhanc 1, 65–72 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0007-6

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