Skip to main content

Language-Related and Learning Disorders

  • Chapter
Child Neuropsychology

Abstract

Neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood, including language-related and learning disabilities, constitute a large percentage of the childhood disorders seen by child clinical neuropsychologists. Language impairments and learning disabilities resulting from phonological core deficits are featured, as are mathematics difficulties resulting from nonverbal, reasoning, and perceptual deficits. Recently these disorders have often been combined with the new term, learning and language impaired. A large body of research has burgeoned over the past decade. There are some children who simply exhibit a language delay as well as a few children with a learning disability without a significant language delay. For that reason we will discuss language disability somewhat separate from learning disabilities although they are related and should be viewed as such.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams, A.-M., & Gathercole, S. E. (2000). Limitations in working memory: Implications for language development. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 35, 95–116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alloway, T. P., & Gathercole, S. E. (2005). Working memory and short-term sentence recall in young children. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 17, 207–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amelsvoort, T. V., Daly, E. M., Robertson, D. M., Suckling, J., Ng, V., Critchley, H. D., et al. (2001). Structural brain abnormalities associated with deletion at chromosome 22q11: Quantitative neuroimaging study of adults with velocardiofacial syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 412–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P., Anderson, V., Northam, E., & Taylor, H. G. (2000). Standardization of the contingency naming test (CNT) for school-aged children: A measure of reactive flexibility. Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment, 1, 247–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antshell, K. M., & Khan, F. M. (2008). Is there an increased familial prevalence of psychopathology in children with nonverbal learning disorders? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42, 208–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aram, D. M., & Ekelman, B. L. (1988). Scholastic aptitude and achievement among children with unilateral brain lesions. Neuropsychologia, 26, 903–916.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asbjornsen, A., Holmefjord, A., Reisaeter, S., Moller, P., Klausen, O., Prytz, B., et al. (2000). Lasting auditory attention impairment after persistent middle ear infections: A dichotic listening study. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 42, 481–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asbjornsen, A., Obzrut, J. E., Boliek, C. A., Myking, E., Holmefjord, A., Reisaeter, S., et al. (2005). Impaired auditory attention skills following middle-ear infections. Child Neuropsychology, 11, 121–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aylward, E. H., Richards, T. L., Berninger, V. W., Nagy, W. E., Field, K. M., Grimme, A. C., et al. (2003). Instructional treatment associated with changes in brain activation in children with dyslexia. Neurology, 61, 212–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balthazar, C. H. (2003). The word length effect in children with language impairment. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36, 487–505.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnea-Gorly, N., Menon, V., Krasnow, B., Ko, A., Reiss, A. L., & Eliez, S. (2003). Investigation of white matter structure in velocardiofacial syndrome: A diffusion tensor imaging study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1863–1869.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnhill, G. P., Tapscott, K., Tebbgenkamp, K., & Smith, B. (2002). The effectiveness of social skills intervention targeting nonverbal communication for adolescents with Asperger syndrome and related pervasive developmental delays. Focus on Autism and other Developmental Disabilities, 17, 112–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauminger, N. (2002). The facilitation of social-emotional understanding and social interaction in high-functioning children with autism: Intervention outcomes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 283–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beitchman, J., Adlaf, E. M., Douglas, L., Atkinson, L., Young, A., Johnson, C. J., et al. (2001). Comorbidity of psychiatric and substance use disorders in late adolescence: A cluster analytic approach. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 27, 421–440.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beitchman, J., Nair, R., Clegg, M., Ferguson, B., & Patel, P. G. (1986). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in children with speech and language disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 585–594.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benasich, A. A., & Tallal, P. (2002). Infant discrimination of rapid auditory cues predicts later language impairment. Behavioural Brain Research, 136(1), 31–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bender, W. M., Rosenkrans, C. B., & Crane, M.-K. (1999). Stress, depression, and suicide among students with learning disabilities: Assessing the risk. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 143–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W. (2001). Process Assessment of the Learner. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., Graham, S., & Richards, T. (2002). Writing and reading: connections between language by hand and language by eye. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(1), 39–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Thomson, J. B., Wagner, R. K., Swanson, H. L., Wijsman, E., et al. (2006). Modeling developmental phonological core deficits within a working-memory architecture in children and adults with developmental dyslexia. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 165–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., & Amtmann, D. (2003). Preventing written expression disabilities through early and continuing assessment and intervention for handwriting and/or spelling problems: Research into practice. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of Learning Disabilities (pp. 345–363). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., & Fuller, F. (1992). Gender differences in orthographic, verbal, and compositional fluency: Implications for diagnosis of writing disabilities in primary grade children. Journal of School Psychology, 30, 363–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., & Hart, T. (1992). A developmental neuropsychological perspective for reading and writing acquisition. Educational Psychologist, 27, 415–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., & Hooper, S. R. (2006). Special issue on writing. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29, 1–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., Nielsen, K. H., Abbott, R. D., Wijsman, E., & Raskind, W. (2008a). Gender differences in severity of writing and reading disabilities. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 151–172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., Nielsen, K. H., Abbott, R. D., Wijsman, E., & Raskind, W. (2008b). Writing problems in developmental dyslexia: Under-recognized and under-treated. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 1–21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., Rutberg, J., Abbott, R. D., Garcia, N., Anderson-Youngstrom, M., Brooks, A., et al. (2006). Tier 1 and Tier 2 early intervention for handwriting and composing. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 3–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binder, J. R., Frost, J. A., Hammeke, T. A., Bellgowan, P. S. F., Springer, J. A., Kaufman, J. N., et al. (2000). Human temporal lobe activation by speech and nonspeech sounds. Cerebral Cortex, 10, 512–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Binder, J. R., Frost, J. A., Hammeke, T. A., Rao, S. M., & Prieto, T. (1997). Human brain areas identified by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 353–362.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V. M., Adams, C. V., & Norbury, C. F. (2006). Distinct genetic influences on grammar and phonological short-term memory deficits: Evidence from 6-year-old twins. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 5, 158–169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2004). Developmental dyslexia and specific language impairment: Same or different? Psychological Bulletin, 130, 858–886.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C., Knipe, H., & Gamson, D. (2008). Is there a role for executive functions in the development of mathematics ability? Mind, Brain, and Education, 2, 79–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borod, J. C., Andelman, F., Obler, L. K., Tweedy, J. R., & Welkowitz, J. (1992). Right hemispheric specialization for the identification of emotional words and sentences: Evidence from stroke patients. Neuropsychologia, 30, 827–844.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brieger, D., & Majovski, L. V. (2008). Neuropsychological assessment and RTI in the assessment of learning disabilities: Are they mutually exclusive. In E. Fletcher-Janzen & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Neuropsychological perspectives on learning disabilities in the era of RTI: Recommendations for diagnosis and intervention. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broomfield, J., & Dodd, B. (2004a). Children with speech and language disability: Caseload characteristics. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 39, 303–324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broomfield, J., & Dodd, B. (2004b). The nature of referred subtypes of primary speech disability. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 20, 135–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. E., Kesler, S. R., Eliez, S., Warsofsky, I. S., Haberecht, M., Patwardhan, A., et al. (2002). Brain development in Turner syndrome: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 116, 187–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. S., & Paul, L. K. (2000). Cognitive and psychosocial deficits in agenesis of the corpus callosum with normal intelligence. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 5, 135–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. S., Symingtion, M., Van Lancker-Sidtis, D., Dietrich, R., & Paul, L. K. (2005). Paralinguistic processing in children with callosal agenesis: Emergence of neurolinguistic deficits. Brain and Language, 93, 135–139.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bus, A., & van Ijzendoorn, M. (1999). Phonological awareness and early reading: A meta-analysis of experimental training studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 403–414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B., Coventry, W. L., Olson, R. K., Hulslander, J., Wadsworth, S., DeFries, J. C., et al. (2008). A behavior-genetic analysis of orthographic learning, spelling, and decoding. Journal of Research in Reading, 31, 8–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B., Delaland, C., Fielding-Barnsley, R., Quain, P., Samuelsson, S., Hoien, T., et al. (2002). Longitudinal twin study of early reading development in three countries: Preliminary results. Annals of Dyslexia, 52, 49–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B., Fielding-Barnsley, R., & Ashley, L. (2000). Effects of preschool phoneme identity training after six years: Outcome level distinguished from rate of response. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 659–667.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B., Samuelsson, S., Wadsworth, S., Hulslander, J., Corley, R., DeFries, J. C., et al. (2007). Longitudinal twin study of early literacy development: Preschool through Grade 1. Reading and Writing, 20, 77–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capozzi, F., Casini, M. P., Romani, M., De Gennaro, L., Nicolais, G., & Luigi, S. (2008). Psychiatric comorbidity in learning disorder: Analysis of family variables. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 39, 101–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catts, H. W., Hogan, T. P., & Adlof, S. M. (2005). Developmental changes in reading and reading disabilities. In H. W. Catts & A. G. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 24–51). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, J. W., Tunmer, W. E., & Prochnow, J. E. (2001). Does success in the reading recovery program depend on developing proficiency in phonological processing skills? A longitudinal study in a whole language instructional context. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 141–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chase, C. H., & Tallal, P. (1991). Cognitive models of developmental reading disorders. In J. E. Obzrut & G. W. Hynd (Eds.), Neuropsychological foundations of learning disabilities (pp. 199–240). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheour, M., Martynova, O., Naatanen, R., Erkkola, R., Sillanpaa, M., Kero, P., et al. (2002). Speech sounds learned by sleeping newborns. Nature, 415, 599–600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chi, J. G., Dooling, E. C., & Gilles, F. H. (1977). Left-right asymmetries of the temporal speech areas of the human fetus. Archives of neurology, 34, 346–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiappe, P., Stringer, R., Siegel, L. S., & Stanovich, K. E. (2002). Why the timing deficit hypothesis does not explain reading disability in adults. Reading and Writing, 15, 73–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chow, D., & Skuy, M. (1999). Simultaneous and successive cognitive processing in children with nonverbal learning disabilities. School Psychology International, 20, 219–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christian, K., Morrison, F. J., & Bryant, F. B. (1998). Predicting kindergarten academic skills: Interactions among child care, maternal education, and family literacy environments. Early Child Research Quarterly, 13, 501–521.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clay, M. M. (1993). Reading recovery: A guidebook for teachers in training. Auckland, New Zealand: Heinemann Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, L., Lehericy, S., Chhochon, F., Lemer, C., Rivaud, S., & Dehaene, S. (2002). Language-specific tuning of visual cortex? Functional properties of the visual word form area. Brain, 124, 1054–1069.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, W., Hodson, A., O'Hare, A., Boyle, J., Durrani, T., McCartney, E., et al. (2005). Effects of computer-based intervention through acoustically modified speech (Fast ForWord) in severe mixed receptive-expressive language impairment: Outcomes from a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 715–729.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, R., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and read aloud. Psychological Review, 108, 204–256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Compton, D. L., DeFries, J. C., & Olson, R. K. (2001). Are RAN and phonological awareness deficits additive in reading disabled individuals? Dyslexia, 7, 125–149.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, A. J. (2007). Key Math 3. San Antonio, TX: Pearson Assessments.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantino, J. N., & Gruber, C. P. (2006). Social responsiveness scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conti-Ramsden, G., & Botting, N. (2008). Emotional health in adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 516–525.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corlett, M. (2002). Visual perceptual processing errors in children with nonverbal learning disabilities. Unpublished dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornoldi, C. (1999). Imagery deficits in nonverbal learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 48–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, A. E. (2005). Vocabulary growth through independent reading and reading aloud to children. In E. H. Hiebert & M. H. Kamil (Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 45–68). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, P. M. (2007). Best practices in teaching phonological awareness and phonics. In L. B. Gambrell, L. M. Morrow, & M. Pressley (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (pp. 159–177). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtis, W. J., Lindeke, L. L., Georgieff, M. K., & Nelson, C. A. (2002). Neurobehavioral functioning in neonatal intensive care unit graduates in late childhood and early adolescence. Brain, 125, 1646–1659.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Damasio, A. R., Tranel, D., & Rizzo, M. (2000). Disorders of complex visual processing. In M. M. Mesulam (Ed.), Principles of behavioral and cognitive neurology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Decker, S. N., & Vandenberg, S. G. (1985). Colorado twin study of reading disability. In D. B. Gray & J. F. Kavanaugh (Eds.), Behavioral measures of dyslexia (pp. 123–135). Parkton, MD: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C., & Alarcon, M. (1996). Genetics of special reading disability. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 2, 39–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C., Filipek, P. A., Fulker, D. W., Olson, R. K., Pennington, B. F., Smith, S. D., et al. (1997). Colorado learning disabilities research center. Learning Disabilities, 8, 7–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeFries, J. C., Fulker, D. W., & LaBuda, M. C. (1987). Evidence for a genetic aetiology in reading disability of twins. Nature, 329, 537–539.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dodd, B. (1995). Differential diagnosis and treatment of children with speech disorder. London: Whurr Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dragnanski, B., Gaser, C., Kempermann, G., Kuhn, H. G., Winkler, J., Buchel, C., et al. (2006). Temporal and spatial dynamics of brain structure changes during extensive learning. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 26, 6314–6317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duara, B., Kushch, A., Gross-Glenn, K., Barker, W. W., Jallad, B., Pascal, S., et al. (1991). Neuroanatomic differences between dyslexic and normal readers on magnetic resonance imaging scans. Archives of Neurology, 48, 410–416.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eckert, M. A., Leonard, C. M., Possing, E. T., & Binder, J. R. (2006). Uncoupled leftward asymmetries for planum morphology and functional language processing. Brain and Language, 98, 102–111.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ehri, L. C. (2005). Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 135–154). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Eley, T. C., Dale, P. S., Bishop, D. V. M., Price, T. S., & Plomin, R. (2001). Longitudinal analysis of components of cognitive delay: Examining the aetiology of verbal and performance aspects of cognitive delay. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 698–707.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elgar, K., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2002). Are you looking at me? Accuracy in processing line-of-sight in Turner syndrome. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 269, 2415–2422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eliez, S., Schmitt, J. E., White, C. D., Hu, D., & Reiss, A. L. (2002). Velocardiofacial syndrome: Are structural changes in the temporal and mesial temporal regions related to schizophrenia? American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 447–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elksnin, L. K., Bryan, D. P., Gartland, D., King-Sears, M., Rosenberg, M. S., Scanlon, D. M., et al. (2001). LD Summit: Important issues in the field of learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24, 297–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feretti, R. P., MacArthur, C. A., & Dowdy, N. S. (2000). The effects of an elaborated goal on the persuasive writing of students with learning disabilities and their normally achieving peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 694–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiez, J. A. (1997). Phonology, semantics, and the role of the left inferior prefrontal cortex. Human Brain Mapping, 5, 79–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fine, J. G., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Butcher, B., & Walkowiak, J. (2008). Brief report: Attention effect on a measure of social perception Journal of Attention Disorders 38, 1797–1802.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fine, J. G., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Keith, T. Z., Stapleton, L., & Hynd, G. W. (2006). Reading and the corpus callosum: An MRI family study of volume and area. Neuropsychology, 21(2), 235–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fine, J. G., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Reynolds, M. R., & Smith, S. (submitted). Assessing social competence in ADHD and other disorders: Indirect and direct measures. Submitted to Journal of Learning Disabilities.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitch, R. H., & Tallal, P. (2003). Neural mechanisms of language-based learning impairments: Insights from human populations and animal models. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 2, 155–178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flannery, K., Liederman, J., Daly, L., & Schultz, J. (2000). Male prevalence for reading disability is found in a large sample of black and white children free from ascertainment bias. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 433–442.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. M., Morris, M. K., & Lyon, G. R. (2003). Classification and definition of learning disabilities: An integrative perspective. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 30–56). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forrest, B. (2007). Diagnosing and treating right hemisphere disorders. In S. J. Hunter & J. Donders (Eds.), Pediatric neuropsychological intervention (pp. 175–192). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foss, J. M. (1991). Nonverbal learning disabilities and remedial interventions. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 128–140.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, L. M., Hynd, G. W., Morgan, A. E., & Hugdahl, K. (2002). Planum temporale asymmetry and ear advantage in dichotic listening in developmental dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 22–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, A. V., & Dodd, B. (2001). Phonologically disordered German-speaking children. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10, 291–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foxton, J. M., Talcott, J. B., Witton, C., Brace, H., McIntyre, F., & Griffiths, T. D. (2003). Reading skills are related to global, but not local, acoustic pattern perception. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 343–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foy, J. G., & Mann, V. A. (2003). Home literacy environment and phonological awareness in preschool children: Differential effects for rhyme and phoneme awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 59–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, A. R., MacKinnon, J. R., & Miller, L. T. (2004). Assistive technology and handwriting problems: What do occupational therapists recommend? Canadian Journal of Occupational Disabilities: Research and Practice, 18, 157–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Mathes, P. G., & Lipsey, M. W. (2000a). A meta-analysis of reading differences between underachievers with and without the disability label. Learning Disabilities, 10, 1–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Mathes, P. G., & Lipsey, M. W. (2000b). Reading differences between low-achieving students with and without learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. In R. Gersten, E. P. Schiller, & S. Vaughn (Eds.), Contemporary special education research: Syntheses of the knowledge base on critical instructional issues (pp. 81–104). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Prentice, K., Burch, M., Hamlett, C. L., Owen, R., et al. (2003a). Explicitly teaching for transfer: Effect on third-grade students' mathematical problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 293–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Prentice, K., Burch, M., Hamlett, C. L., Owen, R., et al. (2003b). Enhancing third-grade students' mathematical problem solving with self-regulated learning strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 306–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Prentice, K., Hamlett, C. L., Finelli, R., & Courey, S. J. (2004). Enhancing mathematical problem solving among third-grade students with schema-based instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 635–746.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galaburda, A. M. (2005). Neurology of learning disabilities: What will the future bring? The answer comes from the successes of the recent past. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 28, 107–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galaburda, A. M., Sherman, G. P., Rosen, G. D., Aboitiz, F., & Geschwind, N. (1985). Developmental dyslexia: Four consecutive patients with cortical anomalies. Annals of Neurology, 18, 222–233.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, A. J., Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Baker, L. (2006). Development of metacognitive skills of prediction and evaluation in children with and without math disability. Learning Disabilities Research, 21, 77–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaser, C., & Schlaug, G. (2003). Brain structures differ between musicians and non-musicians. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 23, 9240–9245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gathercole, S. E., Tiffany, C., Briscoe, J., & Thorn, A. (2005). Developmental consequences of poor phonological short-term memory functions in childhood: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 46, 598–611.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2004). Mathematics and learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 4–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C., & Hoard, M. K. (2002). Learning disabilities in basic mathematics: Deficits in memory and cognition. In J. M. Royer (Ed.), Mathematical cognition (pp. 95–115). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geschwind, N., & Galaburda, A. M. (1985). Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology: I. A hypothesis and a program for research. Archives of Neurology, 42, 521–552.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillam, R. B., Loeb, D. F., Hoffman, L. M., Bohman, T., Champlin, C. A., Thibodeau, L., et al. (2008). The efficacy of Fast ForWord language intervention for school-age children with language impairment: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51, 97–119.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillingham, A., & Stillman, B. W. (1997). The Gillingham manual: Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and writing (8th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ginsberg, H. P., & Baroody, A. J. (1990). Test of early mathematics ability (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ginsburg, H. P., & Baroody, A. J. (2002). Test of Early Mathematics Ability (3rd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glass, K. L., Guli, L. A., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2000). Social competence intervention program: A pilot program for the development of social competence. Journal of Psychotherapy in Independent Practice Social Competence and Developmental Disorders, 1(4), 21–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glassberg, L. A., Hooper, S. R., & Mattison, R. E. (1999). Prevalence of learning disabilities at enrollment in special education students with behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 9–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, E., & Costa, L. D. (1981). Hemisphere differences in the acquisition and use of descriptive systems. Brain and Language, 14, 144–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Good, C. D., Lawrence, K., Thomas, N. S., Price, C. J., Ashburner, J., Friston, K. J., et al. (2003). Dosage-sensitive X-linked locus influences the development of amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex, and fear recognition in humans. Brain, 126, 2431–2446.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordan, T. (2006). Parent effectiveness training. Solana Beach, CA: Gordon Training International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goswami, U. (2006). Sensorimotor impairments in dyslexia: Getting the beat. Developmental Science, 9(3), 257–259.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goswami, U., & Bryant, P. E. (1990). Phonological skills and learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Olinghouse, N. G., & Harris, K. R. (in press). Teaching composing to students with learning disabilities: Scientifically-supported recommendations. In G. Troia (Ed.), Writing instruction and assessment for struggling writers. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., & Perrin, D. (2007a). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., & Perrin, D. (2007b). Writing new: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high school. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellence in Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graves, A., Valles, E. C., & Rueda, R. (2000). Variation in interactive writing instruction: A study in four bilingual special education settings. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregg, N., Coleman, C., Lindstrom, J., & Lee, C. (2007). Who are most, average or high-functioning adults? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 22, 264–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregg, N., & Mather, N. (2002). School is fun at recess: Informal analyses of written language for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 7–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L. (2001). Developmental dyslexia: An update on genes, brains, and environments. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(1), 91–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grigorenko, E. L. (2006). Learning disabilities in juvenile offenders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 353–371.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gross-Tur, V., Ben-Bashat, D., Shalev, R. S., Levav, M., & Sira, L. B. (2006). Evidence of a developmental cerebello-cerebral disorder. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2569–2572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guli, L. A., Wilkinson, A., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2008). Enhancing social competence on the autism spectrum: A drama-based intervention for youth. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guttorm, T. K., Leppanen, P. H., Poikkeus, A.-M., Eklund, K. M., Lyytinen, P., & Lyytinen, H. (2005). Brain event-related potentials (ERPs) measured at birth predict later language development in children with and without familial risk for dyslexia. Cortex, 41, 291–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, S. L., & Moats, L. C. (1999). Straight talk about reading: How parents can make a difference during the early years. Chicago: Contemporary Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammill, D. D., Mather, N., Allen, E. A., & Roberts, R. (2002). Using semantics, grammar, phonology, and rapid naming tasks to predict word identification. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 121–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanich, L. B., Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., & Dick, J. (2001). Performance across different areas of mathematical cognition in children with learning difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 615–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harder, L., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (submitted). The relation between executive functions and written expression in college students with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harder, L., Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Maegden, J. (2006). College-age students with ADHD and written language difficulties. Paper presented at the International Neuropsychological Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harlaar, N., Spinath, F. M., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2005). Genetic influences on word recognition abilities and disabilities: A study of 7 year old twins. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 373–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harm, M. W., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2004). Computing the meaning of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes. Psychological Review, 111, 662–720.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawke, J. L., Wadsworth, S., Olson, R. K., & DeFries, J. C. (2007). Etiology of reading difficulties as a function of gender and severity. Reading and Writing, 20, 13–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J. R. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 1–27). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. S. (1986). Writing research and the writer. American Psychologist, 41, 1106–1113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heiervang, E., Stevenson, J., & Hugdahl, K. (2002). Auditory processing in children with dyslexia. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 931–938.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helenius, P., Tarkiainen, A., Cornelissen, P. L., Hansen, P. C., & Salmelin, R. (1999). Dissociation of normal feature analysis and deficient processing of letter-strings in dyslexic adults. Cerebral Cortex, 9(5), 476–483.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helland, T., Asbjornsen, A., Hushovd, A. E., & Hugdahl, K. (2007). Dichotic listening and school performance in dyslexia. Dyslexia, 14, 42–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoard, M. K., Geary, D. C., & Hamson, C. O. (1999). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: Performance of low- and average-IQ children. Mathematical Cognition, 5, 65–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoeft, F., Hernandez, A., McMillon, G., Taylor-Hill, H., Martindale, J. L., Meyler, A., et al. (2006). Neural basis of dyslexia: A comparison between dyslexic and nondyslexic children equated for reading ability. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 10700–10708.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hoeft, F., Meyler, A., Hernandez, A., Juel, C., Taylor-Hill, H., Martindale, J. L., et al. (2007). Functional and morphometric brain dissociation between dyslexia and reading ability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 104, 4234–4239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L. M., & Gillam, R. B. (2004). Verbal and spatial information processing constraints in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 114–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holm, A., & Dodd, B. (2001). Comparison of cross-language generalisation following speech therapy. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 53, 166–172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hooper, S. R., Swartz, C., Wakely, M. B., de Kruif, R. E. L., & Montgomery, J. W. (2002). Executive functions in elementary school children with and without problems in written expression. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 57–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoskyn, M., & Swanson, H. L. (2000). What definitions of learning disability say and don't say: A critical analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 239–256.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hugdahl, K., Heiervang, E., Ersland, L., Lundervold, A., Steinmetz, H., & Smievoll, A. I. (2003). Significant relation between MR measures of planum temporale area and dichotic processing of syllables in dyslexic children. Neuropsychologia, 41, 666–675.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hulslander, J., Talcott, J. B., Witton, C., DeFries, J. C., Pennington, B. F., Wadsworth, S., et al. (2004). Sensory processing, reading, IQ, and attention. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 272–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, P., Kaufman, W. E., & Galaburda, A. M. (1990). Developmental dyslexia in women: Neuropsychological findings in three cases. Annals of Neurology, 28, 727–738.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurry, J., & Sylva, K. (2007). Long-term outcomes of early reading intervention. Journal of Research in Reading, 30, 227–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson, S., Lee, L. H., & Gaab, N. (2003). Cerebellar volume of musicians. Cerebral Cortex, 13, 943–949.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (1989). Dyslexia and brain morphology. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 447–482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Lorys, A. R., Novey, E. S., & Eliopulos, D. (1990). Brain morphology in developmental dyslexia and attention deficit disorder/hyperactivity. Archives of neurology, 47, 919–926.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hynd, G. W., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Lorys, A. R., Novey, E. S., Eliopulos, D., & Lyytinen, H. (1991). Corpus callosum morphology in attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: Morphometric analysis of MRI. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(3), 141–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, N. W., & Coltheart, M. (2001). Routes to reading success and failure. New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarrold, C., Baddeley, A. D., Hewes, A. K., Leeke, T. C., & Phillips, C. E. (2004). What links verbal short-term memory performance and vocabulary level? Evidence of change relationships among individuals with learning disability. Journal of Memory and Language, 50, 134–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C. R., Beitchman, J., Young, A., Escobar, M. D., Atkinson, L., Wilson, B., et al. (1999). Fourteen year follow-up of children with and without speech/language impairments: Speech/language stability outcomes. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 42, 744–760.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, J. R. (2006). Thinking about child language: Research to practice. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kavale, K. A. (2005). Identifying specific learning disability: Is responsiveness to intervention the answer? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 553–562.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keenan, J. M., Betjemann, R. S., Wadsworth, S., DeFries, J. C., & Olson, R. K. (2006). Genetic and environmental influences on reading and listening comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 29, 75–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keith, T. Z. (2006). Multiple regression and beyond. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellner, R., Houghton, S., & Graham, D. (2003). Peer-related personal experiences of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with and without comorbid learning disabilities. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 50, 119–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kibby, M., Kroese, J. M., Morgan, A. E., Heimenz, J. R., Cohen, M. J., & Hynd, G. W. (2004). The relationship between perisylvian morphology and verbal short-term memory functioning in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Brain and Language, 89, 122–135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kovas, Y., Oliver, B., Dale, P. S., Bishop, D. V. M., & Plomin, R. (2005). Genetic influences in different aspects of language development: The etiology of language skills in 4.5 year-old twins. Child Development, 76, 632–651.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamm, O., & Epstein, R. (1997). Dichotic listening in children: The reflection of verbal and attentional changes with age. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 65, 25–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, J. P., Hoeien, T., & Oedegaard, H. (1992). Magnetic resonance imaging of the corpus callosum in developmental dyslexia. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 9(2), 123–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, J. P., Hoien, T., Lundberg, I., & Odegaard, H. (1990). MRI evaluation of the size and symmetry of the planum temporale in adolescents with developmental dyslexia. Brain and Language, 39, 289–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Law, J., Boyle, J., Harris, F., Harkness, A., & Nye, C. (2000). Prevalence and natural history of speech and language delay: Findings from a systematic review of the literature. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 35, 165–188.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, K., Campbell, R., Swettenham, J., Terstegge, J., Akers, R., Coleman, M., et al. (2003). Interpreting gaze in Turner syndrome: Impaired sensitivity to intention and emotion, but preservation of social cueing. Neuropsychologia, 41, 894–905.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, K., Kuntsi, J., Coleman, M., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2003). Face and emotion recognition deficits in Turner syndrome: A possible role for X-linked genes in amygdala development. Neuropsychology, 17, 39–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leach, J. M., Scarborough, H. S., & Rescorla, L. A. (2003). Late-emerging reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 211–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, L. B. (1998). Children with specific language impairment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liederman, J., Kantrowitz, L., & Flannery, K. (2005). Male vulnerability to reading disability is not likely to be a myth: A call for new data. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 109–129.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindamood, P. C., & Lindamood, P. D. (1998). The Lindamood phonemic sequencing (LIPS) for reading, spelling, and speech. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logie, R. H. (1995). Visual-spatial working memory. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J.-C., Anton, J.-L., Roth, M., Nazarian, B., et al. (2008). Learning through hand-or typewriting influences visual recognition of new graphic shapes: Behavioral and functional imaging evidence. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 802–815.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. B. (1980). Higher cortical functions in man (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R. (1996a). Learning disabilities. Special Education for Students with Disabilities, 6, 54–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R. (1996b). Learning disabilities. In E. Marsh & R. Barkely (Eds.), Child Psychopathology (pp. 390–434). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R., Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Torgesen, J. K., Wood, F. B., et al. (2001). Rethinking learning disabilities. In C. E. Finn, A. J. Rotherhan & C. R. Hokanson (Eds.), Rethinking special education for a new century (pp. 259–287). Washington, DC: Fordham Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan, D. L., Gresham, F. M., & Bocian, K. M. (1998). Discrepancy between definitions of learning disabilities and school practices: An empirical investigation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 314–326.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magill-Evans, J., Koning, C., Cameron-Sadava, A., & Manyk, K. (1996). Manual for the child and adolescent social perception measure: Unpublished test.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann, V. A. (2003). Language processes: Keys to reading disability. In H. L. Swanson, K. R. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 213–228). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, R., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2004). Emotional adjustment of young adolescents with different learning disability subtypes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 411–420.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marton, K., & Schwartz, R. G. (2003). Working memory capacity and language processes in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 1138–1153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, L. H., & Graham, S. (2008). Writing instruction for adolescents with learning disabilities: Programs for intervention research. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 23, 103–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Kover, S. T. (2007). A longitudinal assessment of executive function skills and their association with math performance. Child Neuropsychology, 13, 18–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Myers, G. F. (2003). Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school-age years. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 218–253.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McCandliss, B., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S. (2003). The visual word form area: Expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 293–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCardle, P., Scarborough, H. S., & Catts, H. W. (2001). Predicting, explaining, and preventing children's reading difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(4), 230–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonough-Ryan, P., Delbello, M., Shear, P. K., Ris, D. M., Soutullo, C., & Strakowski, S. M. (2002). Academic and cognitive abilities in children of parents with bipolar disorder: A test of the nonverbal learning disability model. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24, 280–285.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merzenich, M. M., Jenkins, W. M., Johnson, P., Scheiner, C., Miller, S. L., & Tallal, P. (1996). Temporal processing deficits of language-learning impaired children ameliorated by training. Science, 271, 77–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers, J. E., & Meyers, K. R. (1995). Rey Complex Figure Test under four different administration procedures. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9, 63–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles, T. R., Haslum, M. N., & Wheeler, T. J. (1999). Gender ratio in dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 27–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milne, R. D., Syngeniotis, A., Jackson, G., & Corballis, M. C. (2002). Mixed lateralization of phonological assembly in developmental dyslexia. Neurocase, 8, 205–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Molfese, D. L., Molfese, V. J., & Molfese, P. J. (2007). Relation between early measures of brain responses to language stimuli and childhood performance on language and language-related tasks. In D. Coch, G. Dawson & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Human behavior, learning, and the developing brain: Atypical development (pp. 191–211). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Molfese, D. L., Molfese, V. J., & Pratt, N. L. (2007). The use of event-related evoked potentials to predict developmental outcomes. In M. deHaan (Ed.), Infant EEG and event-related potentials. Studies in developmental psychology (pp. 199–225). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, J. W. (2004). Sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment: Effects of input rate and phonological working memory. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 39, 115–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, A. E., & Hynd, G. W. (1998). Dyslexia, neurolinguistic ability, and anatomical variation of the planum temporale. Neuropsychology Review, 8, 79–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, R. D., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Lyon, G. R., Shankweiler, D. P., et al. (1998). Subtypes of reading disability: Variability around a phonological core. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 347–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munte, T. F., Altenmuller, E., & Jancke, L. (2002). The musician's brain as a model of neuroplasticity. Nature Review of Neuroscience, 3, 473–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, K. C., Jones, L. A., & Owen, M. J. (1999). High rates of schizophrenia in adults with velocardiofacial syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 940–945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, M. M., & Mazzocco, M. M. M. (2008). Mathematics learning disabilities in girls with Fragile X or Turner syndrome during late elementary school. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 29–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, M. M., Mazzocco, M. M. M., Gerner, G., & Hendry, A. E. (2006). Mathematics learning disability in girls with Turner syndrome or Fragile X syndrome. Brain and Cognition, 61, 195–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, M. M., Mazzocco, M. M. M., Hanich, L. B., & Early, M. C. (2008). Cognitive characteristics of children with mathematics learning disability (MLD) vary as a function of the cutoff criterion used to define MLD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 458–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nation, K., & Norbury, C. F. (2005). Why reading comprehension fails: Insights from children with developmental disorders. Topics in Language Disorders, 25, 21–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • No Child Left Behind. (2002). http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/egsea02.html. Washington, DC: U.S. Government

  • Norrelgen, F., Lacerda, F., & Forssberg, H. (2002). Temporal resolution of auditory perception and verbal working memory in 15 children with language impairment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 540–546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O'Connor, R. E., Harty, K. R., & Fulmer, D. (2005). Tiers of intervention in kindergarten through third grade. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 532–538.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oakhill, J., Cain, K. E., & Bryant, P. E. (2003). The dissociation of word reading and text comprehension: Evidence from component skills. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18, 443–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obrzut, J., Boliek, C. A., & Asbjornsen, A. (2006). Does attentional cueing affect dichotic listening performance in children? Developmental Neuropsychology, 30, 791–800.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ohio Department of Education. (1995). Longitudinal study of reading recovery 1990–1991 though 1993–1994. Battelle, OH: Final Report.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson, R. K. (1999). Genes, environment, and reading disabilities. In R. Sternberg & L. Spear-Swerling (Eds.), Perspectives on learning disabilities (pp. 3–22). Oxford: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostad, S. A. (2000). Cognitive subtraction in a developmental perspective: Accuracy, speed-of-processing and strategy-use differences in normal and mathematically disabled children. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 22, 18–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Padlonsky, I. (2008). The neuropsychological and neurobehavioral consequences of ADHD comorbid with LD and otitis media. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 20, 11–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palombo, J. (2006). Nonverbal learning disabilities: A clinical perspective. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, L. K., Schieffer, B., & Brown, W. S. (2004). Social processing deficits in agenesis of the corpus callosum: Narratives from the thematic apperception test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 215–225.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, L. K., Van Lancker-Sidtis, D., Schieffer, B., Dietrich, R., & Brown, W. S. (2003). Communicative deficits in agenesis of the corpus callosum: Nonliteral language and affective prosody. Brain and Language, 85, 313–324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F. (2006). From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition, 101(2), 385–413.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., Cardoso-Martins, C., Green, P. A., & Lefly, D. (2001). Comparing the phonological and double deficit hypotheses for developmental dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 14, 707–755.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A., Landi, N., & Oakhill, J. (2005). The acquisition of reading comprehension skill. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 227–247). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, B., Vohr, B., Kane, M. J., Whalen, D. H., Schneider, K. C., Katz, K. H., et al. (2002). A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of language processing and its cognitive correlates in prematurely born children. Pediatrics, 110, 1153–1162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petherham, B., & Enderby, P. (2001). Demographic and epidemiological analysis of patients referred to speech and language therapy at eleven centres. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 36, 515–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrill, S. A., Deater-Deckard, K., Schatschneider, C., & Davis, C. (2005). Measured environmental influences on early reading: Evidence from an adoption study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 237–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrill, S. A., Deater-Deckard, K., Schatschneider, C., & Davis, C. (2007). Environmental influences on reading-related outcomes: An adoption study. Infant and Child Development, 16, 171–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrill, S. A., Deater-Deckard, K., Thompson, L. A., & DeThorne, L. S. (2006). Reading skills in early readers: Genetic and shared environmental influences. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 48–55.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pokorni, J. L., Worthington, C. K., & Jamison, P. J. (2004). Phonological awareness intervention: Comparison of Fast ForWord, Earobics, and LiPs. Journal of Educational Research, 97, 147–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price, T. S., Eley, T. C., Dale, P. S., Stevenson, J., Saudino, K., & Plomin, R. (2000). Genetic and environmental covariation between verbal and non-verbal cognitive development in infancy. Child Development, 71, 941–959.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pugh, K. R., Mencl, W. E., Jenner, A. R., Katz, L., Frost, S. J., Lee, J. R., et al. (2001). Neurobiological studies of reading and reading disability. Journal of Communication Disorders, 34, 479–492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pugh, K. R., Mencl, W. E., Jenner, A. R., Lee, J. R., Katz, L., Frost, S. J., et al. (2001). Neuroimaging studies of reading development and reading disability. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(4), 240–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, A. L., Eliez, S., Schmitt, J. E., Patwardhan, A., & Haberecht, M. (2000). Brain imaging in neurogenetic conditions: Realizing the potential of behavioral neurogenetics research. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research, 6, 186–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, C. R. (2003). Conceptual and technical problems in learning disability diagnosis. In C. R. Reynolds & R. W. Kamphaus (Eds.), Handbook for psychological and educational assessment of children: Intelligence, aptitude and achievement (2nd ed., pp. 474–497). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, M. R., & Wheldall, K. (2007). Reading recovery 20 years down the track: Looking forward, looking back. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 54, 199–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riccio, C., Cohen, M. J., Garrison, T., & Smith, B. (2005). Auditory processing measures: Correlation with neuropsychological measures of attention, memory, and behavior. Child Neuropsychology, 11, 363–372.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riccio, C., Garland, B. H., & Cohen, M. J. (2007). Relations between the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA) and the Children's Memory Scale (CMS). Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 167–171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, T. L., Aylward, E. H., Berninger, V. W., Field, K., Grimme, A. C., Richards, A. L., et al. (2005). Individual fMRI activation in orthographic mapping and morpheme mapping after orthographic or morphological spelling treatment in child dyslexics. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 19, 56–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rickard, T. C., Romero, S. G., Basso, G., Wharton, C., Flitman, S., & Grafman, J. (2000). The calculating brain: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 38, 325–335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritchey, K. D., & Goeke, J. L. (2006). Orton-Gillingham and Orton-Gillingham-based reading instruction: A review of the literature. Journal of Special Education, 40, 171–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, S. A., Feldman, J. F., & Jankowski, J. J. (2002). Processing speed in the 1st year of life: A longitudinal study of preterm and full-term infants. Developmental Psychology, 38, 895–902.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, T. E., & Zirkel, P. (2007). Orton-Gillingham methodology for students with reading disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 41, 171–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P. (1989). Nonverbal learning disabilities: The syndrome and the model. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P. (1994). Neuropsychological assessment of children with learning disabilities: Measurement issues. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 475–514). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P. (1995). The NLD syndrome and the white matter model. In B. P. Rourke (Ed.), Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Neurodevelopmental manifestations. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P. (2000). Neuropsychological and psychosocial subtyping: A review of investigations within the University of Windsor laboratory. Canadian Psychology, 41(1), 34–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P., Ahmad, S. A., Collins, D. W., Hayman-Abello, B. A., & Warriner, E. M. (2002). Child clinical/pediatric neuropsychology: Some recent advances. Review of Psychology, 53, 309–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P., & Fuerst, D. R. (1991). Cognitive processing, academic achievement, and psychosocial functioning: A neurodevelopmental perspective. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P., & Tsatsanis, K. D. (1996). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Psycholinguistic assets and deficits. Topics in Language Disorders, 16(2), 30–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P., & Tsatsanis, K. D. (2000). Nonverbal learning disabilities. In A. Klin, F. R. Volkmar, & S. S. Sparrow (Eds.), Asperger syndrome. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rovet, J. (2004). Turner Syndrome: Genetic and hormonal factors contributing to a specific learning disability profile. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19, 133–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rumsey, J. M., Dorwart, R., Vermess, M., Denckla, M. B., Kruesi, M. J. P., & Rappoport, J. L. (1986). Magnetic resonance imaging of brain anatomy in severe developmental dyslexia. Archives of neurology, 43, 1045–1046.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Bailey, A., Berument, S. K., Lord, C., & Pickeles, A. (2003). Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samuelsson, S., Byrne, B., Wadsworth, S., Corley, R., DeFries, J. C., Willcutt, E., et al. (2007). Genetic and environmental influences on prereading skills and early reading and spelling development in the United States, Australia, and Scandinavia. Reading and Writing, 20, 51–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, H. S. (2005). Developmental relationships between language and reading: Reconciling a beautiful hypothesis with some ugly facts. In H. W. Catts & A. G. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities (pp. 3–24). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schatschneider, C., Carlson, C. D., Francis, D. J., Foorman, B. R., & Fletcher, J. M. (2002). Relationship of rapid automatized naming and phonological awareness in early reading development: Implications for the double-deficit hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 245–256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schnoebelen, S., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Guli, L. A., & Corlett, M. (2002). Planning and organization in children with learning disabilities. Paper presented at the American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumaker, J. B., Deshler, D. D., & McKnight, P. (2002). Ensuring success in the secondary general education curriculum through the use of teaching routines. In M. A. Shinn, H. M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 403–424). Bethseda, MD: NASP Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scientific Learning Corporation. (1998). Fast ForWord Language (Computer software). Berkeley, CA: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (2002). On babies and bathwater: Addressing the problems of identification of learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 155–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96, 523–568.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2001). Traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2003). Executive functions and social communication disorders. Perspectives, 29, 20–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2006). Neuropsychological aspects for evaluating LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 563–568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2007). Social competence in children. New York: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., Biederman, J., Sprich-Buckminster, S., Krifcher Lehman, B., Faraone, S. V., & Norman, D. (1992). The incidence of ADHD and concurrent learning disabilities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 439–448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Fine, J. G. (2008). A meta-analysis of the neuropsychology of NVLD. Paper presented at the International Neuropsychological Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Glass, K. L. (2008). Comprehension of humor in children with nonverbal learning disabilities, verbal learning disabilities and without learning disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 58, 163–180.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., Guy, K., Griffin, J. D., & Hynd, G. W. (2000). Rapid naming deficits in children and adolescents with reading disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Brain and Language, 74, 70–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Hynd, G. W. (1990). Right hemispheric dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 196–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., Hynd, G. W., Novey, E. S., & Eliopulos, D. (1991). Dyslexia and brain morphology: Relationships between neuroanatomical variation and neurolinguistic tasks. Learning and Individual Differences, 3(3), 225–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Schaefer, V. (2000). Social competence in developmental disorders. Journal of Psychotherapy in Independent Practice, 4, 3–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., Walkowiak, J., Wilkinson, & Christopher (submitted). Neuropsychological findings in nonverbal learning disabilities. Developmental Neuropsychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Senechal, M., & LeFevure, J. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children's reading skills: A five-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73, 445–460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Share, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (2003). Gender bias in IQ-discrepancy and post-discrepancy definitions of reading disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36, 4–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Blachman, B. A., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Skudlarski, P., et al. (2004). Development of left occipitotemporal systems for skilled reading in children after a phonologically-based intervention. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 926–933.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Pugh, K. R., Constable, R. T., Skudlarski, P., Fulbright, R. K., et al. (1995). Sex differences in the functional organization of the brain for language, Nature, 373, 607–609.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S. E. (1998). Dyslexia. The New England Journal of Medicine, 338(5), 307–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S. E., Mody, M., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2006). Neural mechanisms in dyslexia. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6), 278–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shriberg, L., Tomblin, J., & McSweeney, J. (1999). Prevalence of speech delay in six-year-old children and comorbidity with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1461–1484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, L. S., & Smythe, I. S. (2005). Reflections on research on reading disability with special attention to gender issues. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 473–477.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simos, P. G., Fletcher, J. M., Bergman, E., Breier, J. I., Foorman, B. R., Castillo, E. M., et al. (2002). Dyslexia-specific brain activation profile becomes normal following successful remedial training. Neurology, 58, 1203–1213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snow, D. M. (2001). Imitation of intonation contours by children with normal and disordered language development. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics 15, 567–584.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, T. J., Biederman, J., & Mick, E. (2007). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: Diagnosis, lifespan, comorbidities, and neurobiology. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32, 631–642.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spinath, F. M., Price, T. S., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2004). The genetic and environmental origins of language disability and ability. Child Development, 75, 445–454.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spinath, F. M., Ronald, A., Harlaar, N., Price, T. S., & Plomin, R. (2003). Phenotypic 'g' early in life: On the etiology of general cognitive ability in a large population sample of twin children aged 2 to 4 years. Intelligence, 31, 195–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzka, E. A. (1907). A study of the brains of six eminent scientists belonging to the American Anthropometric Society: Together with a discussion of the skull of Professor E.D. Cope Transaction on American Philosophical Society, 21, 175–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E. (2005). The future of a mistake: Will discrepancy measurement continue to make the learning disabilities field a pseudoscience? Learning Disability Quarterly, 28, 103–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E., Nathan, R., & Vala-Rossa, M. (1986). Developmental changes in the cognitive correlates of reading ability and the developmental lag hypothesis. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 267–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E., Siegel, L. S., & Gottardo, A. (1997). Converging evidence for phonological and surface subtypes of reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 114–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanovich, K. E., Siegel, L. S., Gottardo, A., Chiappe, P., & Sidhu, R. (1997). Subtypes of developmental dyslexia: Differences in phonological and orthographic coding. In B. A. Blachman (Ed.), Cognitive and linguistic foundations of reading acquisition (pp. 115–141). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark, R. E. (1988). Implications for clinical management: A perspective. In R. E. Stark & P. Tallal (Eds.), Language, speech, and reading disorders in children: Neuropsychological studies (pp. 169–180). Boston: College-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark, R. E., & Tallal, P. (1988). Language, speech, and reading disorders in children: Neuropsychological studies. Boston: College-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinmetz, H., Jäncke, L., Kleinschmidt, A., Schlaug, G., Volkmann, J., & Huang, Y. (1992). Sex but no hand difference in the isthmus of the corpus callosum. Neurology, 42, 749–752.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steubing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., LeDoux, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2002). Validity of IQ-discrepancy classifications of reading disabilities: A meta-analysis. American Education Research Journal, 39, 469–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, S. L. (2001). An open letter to Reid Lyon. Educational Researcher, 30, 26–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stromsvold, K. (2001). The heritability of language: A review and meta-analysis of twin, adoption and linkage studies. Language, 77, 647–723.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strong, R. W., Silver, H. F., & Perini, M. J. (2008). Reading for academic success, grades 2–6: Differentiated strategies for struggling, average, and advanced readers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sundheim, S. T. P. V., & Voeller, K. K. S. (2004). Psychiatric implications of language disorders and learning disabilities: Risks and management. Journal of Child Neurology, 19, 814–826.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swillen, A., Vandeputte, L., Cracco, J., Maes, B., Ghesquiere, P., Devriendt, K., et al. (1999). Neuropsychological, learning, and psychosocial profile of primary school-aged children with the velocardiofacial syndrome (22q11 deletion): Evidence for a nonverbal learning disability. Neuropsychology, 5, 230–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Talcott, J. B., Witton, C., McClean, M., Hansen, P. C., Rees, A., Green, G. G. R., et al. (2000). Dynamic sensory sensitivity and children’s word decoding skills. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 97, 2952–2957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tallal, P. (1988). Developmental language disorders. In J. F. Kavanagh & T. J. Truss (Eds.), Learning disabilities: Proceedings of the National Conference (pp. 181–272). Parkton, MD: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tallal, P. (2004). Improving language and literacy is a matter of time. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 5, 721–728.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tallal, P., & Fitch, R. H. (2005). Central auditory processing and language learning impairments: Implications for neuroplasticity research. In J. Syka & M. M. Merzenich (Eds.), Plasticity and signal representation in the auditory system (pp. 355–385). New York: Springer Publishing Company.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tallal, P., & Gaab, N. (2006). Dynamic auditory processing, musical experience, and language development. Trends in Neurosciences, 29, 382–390.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tallal, P., Miller, S. L., Bedi, G., Byma, G., Wang, X., Nagarajan, S. S., et al. (1996). Language comprehension in language learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech. Science, 271, 81–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tarkiainen, A., Helenius, P., Hansen, P. C., Cornelissen, P. L., & Salmelin, R. (1999). Dynamics of letter string perception in the human occipitotemporal cortex. Brain, 122, 2119–2131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teeter, P. A. (1998). Interventions for ADHD. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thatcher, R. W. (1996). Neuroimaging of cyclic cortical reorganization during human development. In R. W. Thatcher, G. R. Lyon, J. Rumsey & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Developmental neuroimaging: Mapping the development of brain and behavior (pp. 91–106). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Therien, J. M., Worwa, C. T., Mattia, F. R., & deRegnier, R. A. (2004). Altered pathways for auditory discrimination and recognition memory in preterm infants. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 46, 816–824.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J. K. (2004). Lessons learned from research on interventions for students who have difficulty learning to read. In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.), The voice of evidence in reading research (pp. 355–382). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J. K., Alexander, A. L., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Voeller, K. K. S., & Conway, T. (2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 33–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuller, B., Jantzen, K. J., Olvera, D., Steinberg, F., & Kelso, J. A. S. (2007). The influence of instruction modality on brain activation in teenagers with nonverbal learning disabilities: Two case histories. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 348–359.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tunmer, W. E., Chapman, J. W., & Prochnow, J. E. (2003). Preventing negative Matthews effects in at-risk readers: A retrospective study. In B. R. Foorman (Ed.), Preventing and remediating reading difficulties (pp. 121–164). New York: York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Daal, J., Verhoeven, L., van Leeuwe, J., & van Balkom, H. (2008). Working memory limitations in children with severe language impairment. Journal of Communication Disorders, 41, 85–107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, S., & Klingner, J. K. (2004). Teaching reading comprehension to students with learning disabilities. In C. Stone, E. Silliman, B. Ehren & K. Apel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy development and disorders. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., & Hickman, P. (2003). Response to treatment as a means of identifying students with reading/learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69, 391–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Venezky, R. (1998). An alternative perspective on success for all. In K. Wong (Ed.), Advances in educational policy (pp. 145–165). New York: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viding, E., Spinath, F. M., Price, T. S., Bishop, D. V. M., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2004). Genetic and environmental influence on language impairment in 4-year-old same-sex and opposite-sex twins. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 31–325.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vukovic, R. K., & Siegel, L. S. (2006). The double-deficit hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 25–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, S., & DeFries, J. C. (2005). Genetic etiology of reading difficulties in boys and girls. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 8, 594–601.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, S., DeFries, J. C., Olson, R. K., & Willcutt, E. (2007). Colorado longitudinal twin study of reading disability. Annals of Dyslexia, 57, 139–160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wadsworth, S., Olson, R. K., Pennington, B. F., & DeFries, J. C. (2000). Differential genetic etiology of reading disability as a function of IQ. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 192–199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, A., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2008). Motor speed in children and adolescents with nonverbal learning disabilities. Paper presented at the International Neuropsychological Society,.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wills, K. (2007). Remediating specific learning disabilities. In S. J. Hunter & J. Donders (Eds.), Pediatric neuropsychological intervention (pp. 224–252). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winskel, H. (2006). The effects of an early history of otitis media on children's language and literacy skill development. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 727–744.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witelson, S. F., Kigar, D. L., & Harvey, T. (1999). The exceptional brain of Albert Einstein. Lancet, 353, 2149–2153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, T. M., Strickland, T. L., Fletcher-Janzen, E., Ardila, A., & Reynolds, C. R. (2000). Theoretical and practical issues in the neuropsychological assessment and treatment of culturally dissimilar patients. In E. Fletcher-Janzen, T. L. Strickland, & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural neuropsychology (pp. 3–18). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum publishers.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Worling, D. E., Humphries, T., & Tannock, R. (1999). Spatial and emotional aspects of language inferencing in nonverbal learning disabilities. Brain and Language, 70, 220–239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xue, G., & Poldrack, R. A. (2007). The neural substrates of visual perceptual learning of words: Implications for the visual word form area hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 1643–1655.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Margaret Semrud-Clikeman .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Semrud-Clikeman, M., Ellison, P.A.T. (2009). Language-Related and Learning Disorders. In: Child Neuropsychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-88963-4_12

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics