Zusammenfassung
Die Endokrinologie der Schwangerschaft ist davon geprägt, dass zwei Individuen involviert sind, die sich schon in der Übergangsphase von der Befruchtung zur Einnistung endo- und parakrin beeinflussen. Daher werden zentrale Interaktionen wie z. B. zwischen dem endokrinen System und dem Immunsystem in den nachfolgenden Kapiteln zur Implantation und Frühschwangerschaft behandelt. Die Entwicklung der fetalen endokrinen Organe, einschließlich ihres Funktionsbeginns sind ebenso wie die Bedeutung der Hormondiagnostik in der Abklärung der (Früh-)Schwangerschaft wie z. B. bei der Unterscheidung zwischen einer intra- und extrauterinen Implantation ein weiterer wichtiger Aspekt. Ferner werden in diesem Kapitel für die klinische Praxis relevante Erkrankungen mütterlicher endokriner Organe und deren Bedeutung in der Schwangerschaft beschrieben sowie Fragen zur Hormonmedikation während Schwangerschaft und Stillzeit beantwortet. Somit werden sowohl physiologische als auch pathologische Aspekte der Schwangerschaft und Stillzeit erörtert.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Literatur
Abdallah MA, Lei ZM, Li X, Greenwold N, Nakajima ST, Jauniaux E, Rao CV (2004) Human fetal nongonadal tissues contain human chorionic gonadotropin/luteinizing hormone receptors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:952–956. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-030917
ACOG (2011) ACOG practice bulletin no. 121: long-acting reversible contraception: implants and intrauterine devices. Obstet Gynecol 118:184–196. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e318227f05e
ACOG (2015) Practice bulletin no. 150: early pregnancy loss. Obstet Gynecol 125:1258–1267
Ambrus G, Rao CV (1994) Novel regulation of pregnant human myometrial smooth muscle cell gap junctions by human chorionic gonadotropin. Endocrinology 135:2772–2779. https://doi.org/10.1210/endo.135.6.7988470
Arck PC, Hecher K (2013) Fetomaternal immune cross-talk and its consequences for maternal and offspring’s health. Nat Med 19:548–556. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.3160
Arck PC, Rucke M, Rose M, Szekeres-Bartho J, Douglas AJ, Pritsch M, Blois SM, Pincus MK, Barenstrauch N, Dudenhausen JW, Nakamura K et al (2008) Early risk factors for miscarriage: a prospective cohort study in pregnant women. Reprod BioMed Online 17:101–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60300-8
Ashworth JR, Baker PN (2000) Coexistent maternal disease and intrauterine growth restriction. Intrauterine growth restriction. Springer, London
Balsells M, Garcia-Patterson A, Corcoy R (2016) Systematic review and meta-analysis on the association of prepregnancy underweight and miscarriage. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 207:73–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2016.10.012
Bamberger CM, Bamberger AM (2000) The peripheral CRH/urocortin system. Ann N Y Acad Sci 917:290–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05395.x
Barker DJ (1997) Maternal nutrition, fetal nutrition, and disease in later life. Nutrition 13:807–813. https://doi.org/10.1016/s08999007(97)00193-7
Barnhart KT (2009) Clinical practice. Ectopic pregnancy. N Engl J Med 361:379–387. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMcp0810384
Belogolovkin V, Alio AP, Mbah AK, Clayton HB, Wathington D, Salihu HM (2009) Patterns and success of fetal programming among women with low and extremely low pre-pregnancy BMI. Arch Gynecol Obstet 280:579–584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-009-0965-8
Bon GG, Kenemans P, Verstraeten AA, Go S, Philipi PA, van Kamp GJ, van Geijn HP, van Vugt JM (2001) Maternal serum Ca125 and Ca15-3 antigen levels in normal and pathological pregnancy. Fetal Diagn Ther 16:166–172. https://doi.org/10.1159/000053903
Borba VV, Zandman-Goddard G, Shoenfeld Y (2018) Prolactin and autoimmunity. Front Immunol 9:73. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.00073
Bulmer JN, Williams PJ, Lash GE (2010) Immune cells in the placental bed. Int J Dev Biol 54:281–294. https://doi.org/10.1387/ijdb.082763jb
Burbach J, Young L, Russell J (2006) Oxytocin synthesis, secretion, and reproductive functions. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. Elsevier, New York
Burrow GN, Fisher DA, Larsen PR (1994) Maternal and fetal thyroid function. N Engl J Med 331:1072–1078. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199410203311608
Burrows TD, King A, Loke YW (1996) Trophoblast migration during human placental implantation. Hum Reprod Update 2:307–321. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/2.4.307
Butte NF, Hopkinson JM, Mehta N, Moon JK, Smith EO (1999) Adjustments in energy expenditure and substrate utilization during late pregnancy and lactation. Am J Clin Nutr 69:299–307. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/69.2.299
Casey M, MacDonald P (2008) Human parturition: distinction between the initiation of parturition and the onset of labor. Semin Reprod Med 11:272–284. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1018840
Catalano PM, Roman-Drago NM, Amini SB, Sims EA (1998) Longitudinal changes in body composition and energy balance in lean women with normal and abnormal glucose tolerance during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 179:156–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9378(98)70267-4
Cavicchia PP, Liu J, Adams SA, Steck SE, Hussey JR, Daguise VG, Hebert JR (2014) Proportion of gestational diabetes mellitus attributable to overweight and obesity among non-Hispanic black, non-Hispanic white, and Hispanic women in South Carolina. Matern Child Health J 18:1919–1926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-014-1437-8
Cha J, Sun X, Dey SK (2012) Mechanisms of implantation: strategies for successful pregnancy. Nat Med 18:1754–1767. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.3012
Challis JRG, Matthews SG, Gibb W, Lye SJ (2000) Endocrine and paracrine regulation of birth at term and preterm. Endocr Rev 21:514–550. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.21.5.0407
Chappell LC, Cluver CA, Kingdom J, Tong S (2021) Pre-eclampsia. Lancet 398:341–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32335-7
Chard T, Iles R, Wathen N (1995) Why is there a peak of human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) in early pregnancy? Hum Reprod 10:1837–1840. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.humrep.a136187
Cicinelli E, Matteo M, Tinelli R, Pinto V, Marinaccio M, Indraccolo U, De Ziegler D, Resta L (2014) Chronic endometritis due to common bacteria is prevalent in women with recurrent miscarriage as confirmed by improved pregnancy outcome after antibiotic treatment. Reprod Sci 21:640–647. https://doi.org/10.1177/1933719113508817
Cohen M, Meisser A, Bischof P (2006) Metalloproteinases and human placental invasiveness. Placenta 27:783–793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2005.08.006
Cole LA (2010) Biological functions of hCG and hCG-related molecules. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 8:102–102. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7827-8-102
Coomarasamy A, Devall AJ, Cheed V, Harb H, Middleton LJ, Gallos ID, Williams H, Eapen AK, Roberts T, Ogwulu CC, Goranitis I et al (2019) A randomized trial of progesterone in women with bleeding in early pregnancy. N Engl J Med 380:1815–1824. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1813730
Coomarasamy A, Devall AJ, Brosens JJ, Quenby S, Stephenson MD, Sierra S, Christiansen OB, Small R, Brewin J, Roberts TE, Dhillon-Smith R et al (2020) Micronized vaginal progesterone to prevent miscarriage: a critical evaluation of randomized evidence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 223:167–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2019.12.006
Costa TH, Dorea JG (1992) Concentration of fat, protein, lactose and energy in milk of mothers using hormonal contraceptives. Ann Trop Paediatr 12:203–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724936.1992.11747569
Craciunas L, Gallos I, Chu J, Bourne T, Quenby S, Brosens JJ, Coomarasamy A (2019) Conventional and modern markers of endometrial receptivity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update 25:202–223. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmy044
Csapo AI, Pulkkinen MO, Wiest WG (1973) Effects of luteectomy and progesterone replacement therapy in early pregnant patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 115:759–765. https://doi.org/10.1016/00029378(73)90517-6
Devall AJ, Papadopoulou A, Podesek M, Haas DM, Price MJ, Coomarasamy A, Gallos ID (2021) Progestogens for preventing miscarriage: a network meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4:CD013792. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013792.pub2
Dey SK, Lim H, Das SK, Reese J, Paria BC, Daikoku T, Wang H (2004) Molecular cues to implantation. Endocr Rev 25:341–373. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2003-0020
Diaz-Cueto L, Mendez JP, Barrios-de-Tomasi J, Lee JY, Wide L, Veldhuis JD, Ulloa-Aguirre A (1994) Amplitude regulation of episodic release, in vitro biological to immunological ratio, and median charge of human chorionic gonadotropin in pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:890–897. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.78.4.8157717
Diaz-Gimeno P, Horcajadas JA, Martinez-Conejero JA, Esteban FJ, Alama P, Pellicer A, Simon C (2011) A genomic diagnostic tool for human endometrial receptivity based on the transcriptomic signature. Fertil Steril 95:50-60, 60 e51-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.04.063
Diaz-Hernandez I, Alecsandru D, Garcia-Velasco JA, Dominguez F (2021) Uterine natural killer cells: from foe to friend in reproduction. Hum Reprod Update. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmaa062
Dimitriadis E, White CA, Jones RL, Salamonsen LA (2005) Cytokines, chemokines and growth factors in endometrium related to implantation. Hum Reprod Update 11:613–630. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmi023
Ding H, Dai Y, Lei Y, Wang Z, Liu D, Li R, Shen L, Gu N, Zheng M, Zhu X, Zhao G et al (2019) Upregulation of CD81 in trophoblasts induces an imbalance of Treg/Th17 cells by promoting IL-6 expression in preeclampsia. Cell Mol Immunol 16:302–312. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41423-018-0186-9
Du MR, Guo PF, Piao HL, Wang SC, Sun C, Jin LP, Tao Y, Li YH, Zhang D, Zhu R, Fu Q et al (2014) Embryonic trophoblasts induce decidual regulatory T cell differentiation and maternal-fetal tolerance through thymic stromal lymphopoietin instructing dendritic cells. J Immunol 192:1502–1511. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1203425
Duncan WC (2000) The human corpus luteum: remodelling during luteolysis and maternal recognition of pregnancy. Rev Reprod 5:12–17. https://doi.org/10.1530/ror.0.0050012
Edelstam G, Karlsson C, Westgren M, Löwbeer C, Swahn ML (2007) Human chorionic gonadatropin (hCG) during third trimester pregnancy. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 67:519–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/00365510601187765
Einer-Jensen N, Hunter R (2005) Counter-current transfer in reproductive biology. Reproduction 129:9–18. https://doi.org/10.1530/rep.1.00278
Escher G (2009) Hyperaldosteronism in pregnancy. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis 3:123–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/1753944708100180
Evans J (2020) Chapter 3.2 – the role of hCG in endometrial receptivity and embryo implantation. In: Cole LA, Butler SA (Hrsg) In 100 years of human chorionic gonadotropin. Elsevier, S 153–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820050-6.00014-X
Ferre MS, Lawrence CC, Jaffe RB (1978) Role of hCG in regulation of the fetal zone of the human fetal adrenal gland*. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 46:834–837. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-46-5-834
Fisher D (2010) Fetal and neonatal endocrinology. In: Jameson JL, DeGroot JL (Hrsg) Endocrinology. Saunders: 2400, Philadelphia, pp. 2624–2643, ISBN 978-1-4160-5583-9
Fonseca BM, Cunha SC, Goncalves D, Mendes A, Braga J, Correia-da-Silva G, Teixeira NA (2020) Decidual NK cell-derived conditioned medium from miscarriages affects endometrial stromal cell decidualisation: endocannabinoid anandamide and tumour necrosis factor-alpha crosstalk. Hum Reprod 35:265–274. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dez260
Franik S, Bauersachs R, Beyer-Westendorf J, Buchholz T, Buhling K, Diener HC, Erath A, Fischer R, Forderreuther S, Franz HBG, Hach-Wunderle V et al (2021) Hormonal contraception. Guideline of the DGGG, OEGGG and SGGG (S3 level, AWMF registry number 015/015, January 2020). Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 81:152–182. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1259-1609
Fraser R, Whitley GS, Johnstone AP, Host AJ, Sebire NJ, Thilaganathan B, Cartwright JE (2012) Impaired decidual natural killer cell regulation of vascular remodelling in early human pregnancies with high uterine artery resistance. J Pathol 228:322–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/path.4057
Gellersen B, Brosens J (2003) Cyclic AMP and progesterone receptor cross-talk in human endometrium: a decidualizing affair. J Endocrinol 178:357–372. https://doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1780357
Gibb W, Lye S, Challis J (2006) Parturition. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. Elsevier, New York
Girsen AI, Mayo JA, Carmichael SL, Phibbs CS, Shachar BZ, Stevenson DK, Lyell DJ, Shaw GM, Gould JB, March of Dimes Prematurity Research Center at Stanford University School of Medicine (2016) Women’s prepregnancy underweight as a risk factor for preterm birth: a retrospective study. BJOG 123:2001–2007. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.14027
Giudice LC (2004) Microarray expression profiling reveals candidate genes for human uterine receptivity. Am J Pharmacogenomics 4:299–312. https://doi.org/10.2165/00129785-200404050-00003
Gluckman P, Hanson M (2006) Developmental origins of health and diseasetheoretical considerations, mechanisms, and implications. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. Elsevier, New York
Goldstein RF, Abell SK, Ranasinha S, Misso M, Boyle JA, Black MH, Li N, Hu G, Corrado F, Rode L, Kim YJ et al (2017) Association of gestational weight gain with maternal and infant outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 317:2207–2225. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.3635
Gormley MJ, Hadden DR, Kennedy TL, Montgomery DA, Murnaghan GA, Sheridan B (1982) Cushing’s syndrome in pregnancy--treatment with metyrapone. Clin Endocrinol 16:283–293. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.1982.tb00718.x
Griffing G, Melby J (1994) The maternal adrenal cortex. In: Tulchinsky D, Little A (Hrsg) Maternal-fetal endocrinology. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, S 151–160
Grimes EM, Fayez JA, Miller GL (1973) Cushing’s syndrome and pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 42:550–559. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006250-197310000-00012
Grumbach M, Gluckman P (1994) The human fetal hypothalamus and pituitary gland: the maturation of neuroendocrine mechanisms controlling the secretion of fetal pituitary growth hormone, prolactin, gonadotropins, adrenocorticotropin-related peptides, and thyrotropin. In: Tulchinsky D, Little A (Hrsg) Maternal-fetal endocrinology. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, S 193–262
Hambartsoumian E (1998) Endometrial leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) as a possible cause of unexplained infertility and multiple failures of implantation. Am J Reprod Immunol 39:137–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0897.1998.tb00345.x
Han Z, Mulla S, Beyene J, Liao G, McDonald SD, Knowledge Synthesis Group (2011) Maternal underweight and the risk of preterm birth and low birth weight: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Int J Epidemiol 40:65–101. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyq195
Handwerger S (1991) Clinical counterpoint: the physiology of placental lactogen in human pregnancy. Endocr Rev 12:329–336. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv-12-4-329
Herr F, Baal N, Reisinger K, Lorenz A, McKinnon T, Preissner KT, Zygmunt M (2007) HCG in the regulation of placental angiogenesis. Results of an in vitro study. Placenta 28(Suppl A):S85–S93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2007.02.002
Herrler A, von Rango U, Beier HM (2003) Embryo-maternal signalling: how the embryo starts talking to its mother to accomplish implantation. Reprod BioMed Online 6:244–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)61717-8
Hirst J, Chibbar R, Mitchell B (2008) Role of oxytocin in the regulation of uterine activity during pregnancy and in the initiation of labor. Semin Reprod Med 11:219–233. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1018836
Hunkapiller NM, Gasperowicz M, Kapidzic M, Plaks V, Maltepe E, Kitajewski J, Cross JC, Fisher SJ (2011) A role for Notch signaling in trophoblast endovascular invasion and in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia. Development 138:2987–2998. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.066589
Johns J, Muttukrishna S, Lygnos M, Groome N, Jauniaux E (2007) Maternal serum hormone concentrations for prediction of adverse outcome in threatened miscarriage. Reprod BioMed Online 15:413–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60367-7
Kaplan M (1994) The maternal thyroid and parathyroid glands. In: Tulchinsky D, Little A (Hrsg) Maternal-fetal endocrinology. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, S 131–150
King JC (2000) Physiology of pregnancy and nutrient metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr 71:1218S–1225S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/71.5.1218s
Kinoshita T, Taketani Y, Mizuno M (1991) A decline in prolactin levels in amniotic fluid and decidua at term pregnancy after the initiation of labour. J Endocrinol 130:151–153. https://doi.org/10.1677/joe.0.1300151
Kirk E, Papageorghiou AT, Condous G, Tan L, Bora S, Bourne T (2007) The diagnostic effectiveness of an initial transvaginal scan in detecting ectopic pregnancy. Hum Reprod 22:2824–2828. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dem283
Krussel JS, Bielfeld P, Polan ML, Simon C (2003) Regulation of embryonic implantation. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 110(Suppl 1):2–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0301-2115(03)00167-2
Kulp JL, Barnhart KT (2008) Ectopic pregnancy: diagnosis and management. Women’s Health (Lond, Engl) 4:79–87. https://doi.org/10.2217/17455057.4.1.79
Kuon RJ, Voss P, Rath W (2019) Progesterone for the prevention of preterm birth – an update of evidence-based indications. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 79:844–853. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0854-6472
Laird SM, Tuckerman EM, Dalton CF, Dunphy BC, Li TC, Zhang X (1997) The production of leukaemia inhibitory factor by human endometrium: presence in uterine flushings and production by cells in culture. Hum Reprod 12:569–574. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/12.3.569
Lambrinoudaki I, Vlachou SA, Creatsas G (2010) Genetics in gestational diabetes mellitus: association with incidence, severity, pregnancy outcome and response to treatment. Curr Diabetes Rev 6:393–399. https://doi.org/10.2174/157339910793499155
Lau HL, Lawrence KW, Linkins SE, Jones GS (1978) Early detection of human chorionic gonadotropin in urine by simple immunoassays. Am J Obstet Gynecol 132:691–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/00029378(78)90866-9
Lauritzen C (1985) Medikamente in der Schwangerschaft. Auch im 2. und dritten Trimenon sowie in der Stillzeit ist große Umsicht geboten. Gyne 9:292
Lekarev O, New MI (2011) Adrenal disease in pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 25:959–973. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2011.08.004
Li Y, Yu S, Huang C, Lian R, Chen C, Liu S, Li L, Diao L, Markert UR, Zeng Y (2020) Evaluation of peripheral and uterine immune status of chronic endometritis in patients with recurrent reproductive failure. Fertil Steril 113:187–196 e181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2019.09.001
Licht P, Cao H, Lei ZM, Rao CV, Merz WE (1993) Novel self-regulation of human chorionic gonadotropin biosynthesis in term pregnancy human placenta. Endocrinology 133:3014–3025. https://doi.org/10.1210/endo.133.6.8243330
Liggins GC (1994) The role of cortisol in preparing the fetus for birth. Reprod Fertil Dev 6:141–150. https://doi.org/10.1071/rd9940141
Lisonkova S, Muraca GM, Potts J, Liauw J, Chan WS, Skoll A, Lim KI (2017) Association between prepregnancy body mass index and severe maternal morbidity. JAMA 318:1777–1786. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.16191
Litscher ES, Wassarman PM (2020a) Zona pellucida genes and proteins and human fertility. Trends Dev Biol 13:21–33
Litscher ES, Wassarman PM (2020b) Zona pellucida proteins, fibrils, and matrix. Annu Rev Biochem 89:695–715. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biochem-011520-105310
Liu Y, Gao S, Zhao Y, Wang H, Pan Q, Shao Q (2021) Decidual natural killer cells: a good nanny at the maternal-fetal interface during early pregnancy. Front Immunol 12:663660. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.663660
Macklon NS, Brosens JJ (2014) The human endometrium as a sensor of embryo quality. Biol Reprod 91:98. https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.114.122846
Martyn CN, Barker DJ, Osmond C (1996) Mothers’ pelvic size, fetal growth, and death from stroke and coronary heart disease in men in the UK. Lancet 348:1264–1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/s01406736(96)04257-2
Mastorakos G, Ilias I (2003) Maternal and fetal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes during pregnancy and postpartum. Ann N Y Acad Sci 997:136–149. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1290.016
McLean M, Bisits A, Davies J, Woods R, Lowry P, Smith R (1995) A placental clock controlling the length of human pregnancy. Nat Med 1:460–463. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm0595-460
McNeilly A (2006) Suckling and the control of gonadotropin secretion. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. Elsevier, New York
Melmed S, Casanueva FF, Hoffman AR, Kleinberg DL, Montori VM, Schlechte JA, Wass JA, Endocrine S (2011) Diagnosis and treatment of hyperprolactinemia: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:273–288. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-1692
Mendes S, Timóteo-Ferreira F, Almeida H, Silva E (2019) New insights into the process of placentation and the role of oxidative uterine microenvironment. Oxidative Med Cell Longev 2019:9174521. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/9174521
Mitchell BF (1995) Oxytocin synthesis and metabolism in human decidua. Reprod Fertil Dev 7:319–321. https://doi.org/10.1071/rd9950319
Mitchell BF, Wong S (1995) Metabolism of oxytocin in human decidua, chorion, and placenta. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:2729–2733. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.80.9.7673416
Nars P (1982) Medikamente in der Stillperiode. Gynäkologe 15:166
Neville M (2006) Lactation and its hormonal control. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. Elsevier, New York
Nicola C, Chirpac A, Lala PK, Chakraborty C (2008) Roles of Rho guanosine 5’-triphosphatase A, Rho kinases, and extracellular signal regulated kinase (1/2) in prostaglandin E2-mediated migration of first-trimester human extravillous trophoblast. Endocrinology 149:1243–1251. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2007-1136
O’Connor JF, Birken S, Lustbader JW, Krichevsky A, Chen Y, Canfield RE (1994) Recent advances in the chemistry and immunochemistry of human chorionic gonadotropin: impact on clinical measurements. Endocr Rev 15:650–683. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv-15-5-650
Ochoa-Bernal MA, Fazleabas AT (2020) Physiologic events of embryo implantation and decidualization in human and non-human primates. Int J Mol Sci 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21061973
Okada S, Okada H, Sanezumi M, Nakajima T, Yasuda K, Kanzaki H (2000) Expression of interleukin-15 in human endometrium and decidua. Mol Hum Reprod 6:75–80. https://doi.org/10.1093/molehr/6.1.75
Pawar S, Hantak AM, Bagchi IC, Bagchi MK (2014) Minireview: steroid-regulated paracrine mechanisms controlling implantation. Mol Endocrinol 28:1408–1422. https://doi.org/10.1210/me.2014-1074
Pérez A, Labbok MH, Queenan JT (1992) Clinical study of the lactational amenorrhoea method for family planning. Lancet 339:968–970. https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(92)91538-j
Persson M, Cnattingius S, Villamor E, Soderling J, Pasternak B, Stephansson O, Neovius M (2017) Risk of major congenital malformations in relation to maternal overweight and obesity severity: cohort study of 1.2 million singletons. BMJ 357:j2563. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j2563
Pillai RN, Konje JC, Tincello DG, Potdar N (2016) Role of serum biomarkers in the prediction of outcome in women with threatened miscarriage: a systematic review and diagnostic accuracy meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update 22:228–239. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmv054
Pittaway DE, Wentz AC (1985) Evaluation of early pregnancy by serial chorionic gonadotropin determinations: a comparison of methods by receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. Fertil Steril 43:529–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(16)48492-x
Pollard JW, Hunt JS, Wiktor-Jedrzejczak W, Stanley ER (1991) A pregnancy defect in the osteopetrotic (op/op) mouse demonstrates the requirement for CSF-1 in female fertility. Dev Biol 148:273–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-1606(91)90336-2
Prager D, Braunstein GD (1995) Pituitary disorders during pregnancy. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 24:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0889-8529(18)30051-3
Prentice AM, Goldberg GR (2000) Energy adaptations in human pregnancy: limits and long-term consequences. Am J Clin Nutr 71:1226S–1232S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/71.5.1226s
Rao CV, Sanfilippo JS (1997) New understanding in the biochemistry of implantation: potential direct roles of luteinizing hormone and human chorionic gonadotropin. Endocrinologist 7:107–111. https://doi.org/10.1097/00019616-199707020-00007
Rath W, Kuon RJ (2019) Progesterone – effective for tocolysis and maintenance treatment after arrested preterm labour?: Critical analysis of the evidence. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 79:834–843. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0829-3992
Ravelli GP, Stein ZA, Susser MW (1976) Obesity in young men after famine exposure in utero and early infancy. N Engl J Med 295:349–353. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197608122950701
Reynolds RM, Godfrey KM, Barker M, Osmond C, Phillips DI (2007) Stress responsiveness in adult life: influence of mother’s diet in late pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:2208–2210. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2007-0071
Robidoux J, Simoneau L, St-Pierre S, Masse A, Lafond J (2000) Characterization of neuropeptide Y-mediated corticotropin-releasing factor synthesis and release from human placental trophoblasts. Endocrinology 141:2795–2804. https://doi.org/10.1210/endo.141.8.7601
Saxtorph MH, Hallager T, Persson G, Petersen KB, Eriksen JO, Larsen LG, Hviid TV, Macklon N (2020) Assessing endometrial receptivity after recurrent implantation failure: a prospective controlled cohort study. Reprod BioMed Online 41:998–1006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.08.015
Schaefer-Graf U, Ensenauer R, Gembruch U, Groten T, Flothkötter M, Hennicke J, Köhrle J, Möhler J, Kühnert M, Schmittendorf A, Stroh C et al (2021) Obesity and pregnancy. Guideline of the German society of gynecology and obstetrics (S3-level, AWMF registry no. 015-081, June 2019). Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 81:279–303
Schepanski S, Buss C, Hanganu-Opatz IL, Arck PC (2018) Prenatal immune and endocrine modulators of offspring’s brain development and cognitive functions later in life. Front Immunol 9:2186. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.02186
Scott R, Navot D, Liu HC, Rosenwaks Z (1991) A human in vivo model for the luteoplacental shift. Fertil Steril 56:481–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(16)54544-0
Seeber BE (2012) What serial hCG can tell you, and cannot tell you, about an early pregnancy. Fertil Steril 98:1074–1077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2012.09.014
Seeber BE, Sammel MD, Guo W, Zhou L, Hummel A, Barnhart KT (2006) Application of redefined human chorionic gonadotropin curves for the diagnosis of women at risk for ectopic pregnancy. Fertil Steril 86:454–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.12.056
Seeley E, Moore T (1994) The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and vasopressin. In: Tulchinsky D, Little A (Hrsg) Maternal-fetal endocrinology. W.B. Saunders Company, philadelphia, S 99–118
Seron-Ferre M, Lawrence CC, Jaffe RB (1978) Role of hCG in regulation of the fetal zone of the human fetal adrenal gland. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 46:834–837. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-46-5-834
Shimada S, Ebina Y, Iijima N, Deguchi M, Yamada H (2018) Decidual CD68(+) HLA-DR(+) CD163(-) M1 macrophages increase in miscarriages with normal fetal chromosome. Am J Reprod Immunol 79. https://doi.org/10.1111/aji.12791
Shrivastava R, Shukla N (2019) Attributes of alternatively activated (M2) macrophages. Life Sci 224:222–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2019.03.062
Silasi M, You Y, Simpson S, Kaislasuo J, Pal L, Guller S, Peng G, Ramhorst R, Grasso E, Etemad S, Durosier S et al (2020) Human chorionic gonadotropin modulates CXCL10 expression through histone methylation in human decidua. Sci Rep 10:5785. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62593-9
Staun-Ram E, Shalev E (2005) Human trophoblast function during the implantation process. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 3:56. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7827-3-56
Stewart CL, Kaspar P, Brunet LJ, Bhatt H, Gadi I, Kontgen F, Abbondanzo SJ (1992) Blastocyst implantation depends on maternal expression of leukaemia inhibitory factor. Nature 359:76–79. https://doi.org/10.1038/359076a0
Strowitzki T, Wiedemann R, Korell M, Hildisch S, Hepp H (1992) Hormonal and ultrasound monitoring of early pregnancy--differential diagnosis of extrauterine pregnancy and multiple pregnancy. Ultraschall Med 13:80–87. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1005281
Sunder S, Lenton EA (2000) Endocrinology of the peri-implantation period. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 14:789–800. https://doi.org/10.1053/beog.2000.0119
Tan J, Kan A, Hitkari J, Taylor B, Tallon N, Warraich G, Yuzpe A, Nakhuda G (2018) The role of the endometrial receptivity array (ERA) in patients who have failed euploid embryo transfers. J Assist Reprod Genet 35:683–692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-017-1112-2
Taran FA, Kagan KO, Hubner M, Hoopmann M, Wallwiener D, Brucker S (2015) The diagnosis and treatment of ectopic pregnancy. Dtsch Arztebl Int 112:693-703; quiz 704-695. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2015.0693
Taylor RN, Lebovic DI, Hornung D, Mueller MD (2001) Endocrine and paracrine regulation of endometrial angiogenesis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 943:109–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb03795.x
Thliveris JA, Currie RW (1980) Observations on the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal vasculature in the developing human fetus. Am J Anat 157:441–444. https://doi.org/10.1002/aja.1001570411
Thornburg K, Bagby S, Giraud G (2006) Maternal adaptation to pregnancy. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. Elsevier, New York
Ticconi C, Zicari A, Belmonte A, Realacci M, Rao C, V., and Piccione, E. (2007) Pregnancy-promoting actions of HCG in human myometrium and fetal membranes. Placenta 28(Suppl A):137–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2007.01.002
Toth P, Li X, Rao CV, Lincoln SR, Sanfilippo JS, Spinnato JA 2nd, Yussman MA (1994) Expression of functional human chorionic gonadotropin/human luteinizing hormone receptor gene in human uterine arteries. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:307–315. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.79.1.8027246
van der Spuy ZM, Jacobs HS (1984a) Management of endocrine disorders in pregnancy part I--thyroid and parathyroid disease. Postgrad Med J 60:245–252. https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.60.702.245
van der Spuy ZM, Jacobs HS (1984b) Management of endocrine disorders in pregnancy. Part II. Pituitary, ovarian and adrenal disease. Postgrad Med J 60:312–320. https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.60.703.312
van Mello NM, Mol F, Opmeer BC, Ankum WM, Barnhart K, Coomarasamy A, Mol BW, van der Veen F, Hajenius PJ (2012) Diagnostic value of serum hCG on the outcome of pregnancy of unknown location: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update 18:603–617. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dms035
Velasquez EV, Creus S, Trigo RV, Cigorraga SB, Pellizzari EH, Croxatto HB, Campo S (2006a) Pituitary-ovarian axis during lactational amenorrhoea. II. Longitudinal assessment of serum FSH polymorphism before and after recovery of menstrual cycles. Hum Reprod 21:916–923. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dei411
Velasquez EV, Trigo RV, Creus S, Campo S, Croxatto HB (2006b) Pituitary-ovarian axis during lactational amenorrhoea. I. Longitudinal assessment of follicular growth, gonadotrophins, sex steroids and inhibin levels before and after recovery of menstrual cyclicity. Hum Reprod 21:909–915. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dei410
Vento-Tormo R, Efremova M, Botting RA, Turco MY, Vento-Tormo M, Meyer KB, Park JE, Stephenson E, Polanski K, Goncalves A, Gardner L et al (2018) Single-cell reconstruction of the early maternal-fetal interface in humans. Nature 563:347–353. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0698-6
Wakerley J (2006) Milk ejection and Its control. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. Elsevier, New York
Wallace AE, Fraser R, Cartwright JE (2012) Extravillous trophoblast and decidual natural killer cells: a remodelling partnership. Hum Reprod Update 18:458–471. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dms015
Weiss G (2000) Endocrinology of parturition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:4421–4425. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.85.12.7074
Wendland EM, Torloni MR, Falavigna M, Trujillo J, Dode MA, Campos MA, Duncan BB, Schmidt MI (2012) Gestational diabetes and pregnancy outcomes--a systematic review of the world health organization (WHO) and the international association of diabetes in pregnancy study groups (IADPSG) diagnostic criteria. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 12:23. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-12-23
Wheeler V, Hoffman A, Bybel M (2022) Cervical ripening and induction of labor. Am Fam Physician 105:177–186
Wieacker P, Alexopoulos A, DeGregorio G, Breckwoldt M (1989) Pregnancy in Addison’s disease. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 114:1117–1120. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1066728
Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Weinberg CR (1999) Time of implantation of the conceptus and loss of pregnancy. N Engl J Med 340:1796–1799. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199906103402304
Wildt L, Kissler S, Licht P, Becker W (1998) Sperm transport in the human female genital tract and its modulation by oxytocin as assessed by hysterosalpingoscintigraphy, hysterotonography, electrohysterography and Doppler sonography. Hum Reprod Update 4:655–666. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/4.5.655
Wulff C, Dickson SE, Duncan WC, Fraser HM (2001) Angiogenesis in the human corpus luteum: simulated early pregnancy by HCG treatment is associated with both angiogenesis and vessel stabilization. Hum Reprod 16:2515–2524. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/16.12.2515
Wyss P, Maroni E (1993) The risk of conception during lactation. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 53:825–828. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1023733
Yang SW, Cho EH, Choi SY, Lee YK, Park JH, Kim MK, Park JY, Choi HJ, Lee JI, Ko HM, Park SH et al (2017) DC-SIGN expression in Hofbauer cells may play an important role in immune tolerance in fetal chorionic villi during the development of preeclampsia. J Reprod Immunol 124:30–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jri.2017.09.012
Zeleznik A, Pohl C (2006) Control of follicular development, corpus luteum function, the maternal recognition of pregnancy, and the neuroendocrine regulation of the menstrual cycle in higher primates. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. Elsevier, New York
Zhu Y, Chen Y, Feng Y, Yu D, Mo X (2018) Association between maternal body mass index and congenital heart defects in infants: a meta-analysis. Congenit Heart Dis 13:271–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/chd.12567
Zimmermann G, Ackermann W, Alexander H (2012) Expression and production of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the normal secretory endometrium: evidence of CGB7 and/or CGB6 beta hCG subunit gene expression. Biol Reprod 86:87. https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod.111.092429
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 Der/die Autor(en), exklusiv lizenziert an Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, ein Teil von Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Toth, B., Vomstein, K. (2024). Endokrinologie der Schwangerschaft. In: Strowitzki, T., Ortmann, O. (eds) Klinische Endokrinologie für Frauenärzte. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65517-7_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-65517-7_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-65516-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-65517-7
eBook Packages: Medicine (German Language)