Abstract
Living organisms normally contain a high concentration of water, thus when frozen-hydrated biological samples are examined this is the closest representation of the living state that is currently possible to obtain in the electron microscope. An exception is the “environmental microscope” (Danilatos and Postle 1982), but this has considerably more limitations in its use than the “low temperature microscope”. The methods and techniques of low temperature microscopy of bulk samples evolved for both morphological purposes (Echlin et al. 1970; Echlin 1971; Nei et al. 1972; Echlin and Moreton 1973; Nei et al. 1973; Tokunaga and Tokunaga 1973; Turner and Smith 1974; Robinson 1975; Echlin and Moreton 1976; Echlin and Burgess 1977; Echlin 1978; Echlin et al. 1979) and for X-ray microanalysis (Gehring et al. 1973; Marshall and Wright 1973; Gullasch and Kaufmann 1974; Echlin and Moreton 1974; Fuchs and Lindeman 1975; Brom-bach 1975; Lechene et al. 1975; Marshall 1975a,b; Forrest and Marshall 1976; Zierold 1976; Marshall 1977; Yeo et al. 1977; Fuchs et al. 1978a,b; Kramer and Preston 1978; Zierold and Schäfer 1978; Echlin et al 1980; Fuchs and Fuchs 1980; Marshall 1980a,b; Echlin et al. 1981; Marshall 1981; Marshall 1982; Marshall 1984 a; Marshall and Condron 1985a,b; Marshall et al. 1985 b; Echlin and Taylor 1986).
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bald WB (1985) The relative merits of various cooling methods. J Microsc (Oxford) 140:17–40.
Beckett A, Porter R (1982) Uromyces viciae-fabae on Vicia faba: Scanning electron microscopy of frozen-hydrated material. Protoplasma 111:28–37.
Birks LS (1963) Electron probe microanalysis. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Boekestein A, Stols ALH, Stadhouders AM (1980) Quantitation in X-ray microanalysis of biological bulk specimens. Scanning Electron Microsc 1980/II:321–334.
Boekestein A, Stadhouders AM, Stols ALH, Roomans GM (1983) Quantitative biological X-ray microanalysis of bulk specimens: an analysis of inaccuracies involved in ZAF-correction. Scanning Electron Microsc 1983/II:725–736.
Boyde A, Franc F (1981) Freeze-drying shrinkage of glutaraldehyde fixed liver. J Microsc (Oxford) 122:75–86.
Brombach JD (1975) Electron beam X-ray microanalysis of frozen biological bulk specimens below 130 K. 2. The electrical charging of the sample in quantitative analysis. J Microsc Biol Cell 22:233–238.
Brown JD, Robinson WH (1979) Quantitative analysis by ø (ϱZ) curves. Microbeam Anal 1979:238–240.
Danilatos GD, Postle R (1982) The environmental scanning electron microscope and its applications. Scanning Electron Microsc 1982/I:1–16.
Durand M, Deleplanque M, Kahane A (1967) Bulk conductivity of ice between −25° and −100°C with ion exchange membranes. Sol Statn Commun 5:759–760.
Echlin P (1971) The examination of biological material at low temperature. Scanning Electron Microsc 1971:225–232.
Echlin P (1978) Low temperature scanning electron microscopy: a review. J Microsc (Oxford) 112:47–61.
Echlin P, Burgess A (1977) Cryofracturing and low temperature scanning electron microscopy of plant material. Scanning Electron Microsc 1977:491–500.
Echlin P, Moreton R (1973) The preparation coating and examination of frozen biological materials in the SEM. Scanning Electron Microsc 1973:325–331.
Echlin P, Moreton R (1974) The preparation of biological materials of X-ray microanalysis. In: Hall T, Echlin P, Kaufmann R (eds) Microprobe analysis as applied to cells and tissues. Academic Press, London New York, pp 159–174.
Echlin P, Moreton R (1976) Low temperature techniques for scanning electron microscopy. Scanning Electron Microsc 1976:753–762.
Echlin P, Taylor SE (1986) The preparation and X-ray microanalysis of bulk frozen hydrated vacuolate plant tissue. J Microsc (Oxford) 141:329–348.
Echlin P, Lai C, Hayes TL (1981) The distribution and relative concentration of potassium in the root-tips of Lemna minor analysed using low temperature X-ray microanalysis. Scanning Electron Microsc 1981/II:489–498.
Echlin P, Paden R, Dronzek B, Wayte R (1970) Scanning electron microscopy of labile biological tissues maintained under controlled conditions. Scanning Electron Microsc 1970:51–56.
Echlin P, Pawley JB, Hayes TL (1979) Freeze-fracture scanning electron microscopy of Lemna minor. Scanning Electron Microsc 1979/III:69–76.
Echlin P, Lai CE, Hayes TL, Hook G (1980) Elemental analysis of frozen-hydrated differentiating phloem parenchyma in roots of Lemna minor L. Scanning Electron Microsc 1980/II:383–394.
Echlin P, Lai CE, Hayes TL (1982) Low temperature X-ray microanalysis of the differentiating vascular tissue in root tips of Lemna minor L. J Microsc (Oxford) 126:285–306.
Forrest QG, Marshall AT (1976) Comparative X-ray microanalysis of frozen-hydrated and freeze-substituted specimens. In: Ben Shaul Y (ed) Electron microscopy 1976, vol 2. Proc 6th Eur Congr Electron Microsc, Israel Soc Electron Microsc, Jerusalem, pp 218–220.
Fuchs W, Fuchs H (1980) The use of frozen-hydrated bulk specimens for X-ray microanalysis. Scanning Electron Microsc 1980/II:371–382.
Fuchs W, Lindemann B (1975) Electron beam X-ray microanalysis of frozen biological bulk specimens below 130 K. 1. Instrumentation and specimen preparation. J Microsc Biol Cell 22:227–232.
Fuchs W, Lindemann B, Brombach JD, Trosch W (1978a) Instrumentation and specimen preparation for electron beam X-ray microanalysis of frozen hydrated bulk specimens. J Microsc (Oxford) 112:75–87.
Fuchs W, Brombach JD, Trosch W (1978 b) Charging effect in electron-irradiated ice. J Microsc (Oxford) 112:63–74.
Gehring K, Dörge A, Wunderlich P, Thurau K (1973) On the application of the electron microscope for the analysis of freeze-dried cryosections and deep frozen water containing tissue of the rat kidney. Beitr Elektronenmikrosk Direktabb 5:937–950.
Green M (1963) The efficiency of production of characteristic X-ray radiation. In: Pattee HH, Cosslett VE, Engstrom A (eds) X-ray optics and X-ray microanalysis. Academic Press, London New York, pp 185–189.
Green M, Cosslett VE (1961) The efficiency of production of characteristic X-radiation in thick targets of a pure element. Proc Phys Soc 78:1206–1214.
Gullasch J, Kaufmann R (1974) Energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis in soft biological tissues: relevance and reproducibility of the results as depending on specimen preparation (air drying, cryofixation, cool-stage techniques). In: Hall T, Echlin P, Kaufmann R (eds) Microprobe analysis as applied to cells and tissues. Academic Press, London New York, pp 175–190.
Hall TA (1971) The microprobe assay of chemical elements. In: Oster E (ed) Physical techniques in biological research, vol 1A, 2nd edn. Academic Press, London New York, pp 157–275.
Hall TA (1986) Properties of frozen sections relevant to quantitative microanalysis. J Microsc (Oxford) 141:319–328.
Hall TA, Gupta BL (1982) Quantification for the X-ray microanalysis of cryosections. J Microsc (Oxford) 126:333–345.
Hayes TL, Koch G (1975) Some problems associated with low temperature micromanipulation in the SEM. Scanning Electron Microsc 1975/II:35–42.
Henke BL, Lee P, Tanaka TJ, Shimabukuro RL, Fujikawa BK (1982) Low energy X-ray interaction coefficients: Photoabsorption, scattering and reflection. Atom Data Nucl Data Tab 27:1–44.
Hook G, Lai C, Bastacky J, Hayes T (1980) Conductive coatings studied on inflated lung in the frozen hydrated and freeze-dried states. Scanning Electron Microsc 1980/IV:27–32.
Jones D, McHardy WJ, Tait JM (1984) Low temperature scanning electron microscopy of biological specimens. Trans Br Mycol Soc 82:164–170.
Koehler JK (1968) The technique and application of freeze-etching in ultrastructure research. Adv Biol Med Phys 12:1–15.
Kramer D, Preston J (1978) A modified method of X-ray microanalysis of bulk frozen plant tissue and its application to the problem of salt exclusion in mangroove roots. Microsc Acta Suppl 2:193–200.
Lechene C, Strunk T, Warner R (1975) Perspectives in electron probe microanalysis of biological samples kept frozen. Microbeam Anal 1975:49A–49E.
Lustyik G, Zs.-Nagy I (1985) Alterations of the intracellular water and ion concentrations in brain and liver cells during aging as revealed by energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis of bulk specimens. Scanning Electron Microsc 1985/I:323–337.
Marshall AT (1975a) X-ray microanalysis of frozen hydrated biological specimens: the effect of charging. Micron 5:272–280.
Marshall AT (1975b) Electron probe microanalysis. In: Hayat MA (ed) Principles and techniques of scanning electron microscopy, vol. 4. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp 103–173.
Marshall AT (1977) Electron probe X-ray microanalysis of frozen hydrated biological specimens. Microsc Acta 79:254–266.
Marshall AT (1980a) Quanitative X-ray microanalysis of frozen-hydrated bulk biological specimens. Scanning Electron Microsc 1980/II:335–348.
Marshall (1980b) Frozen-hydrated bulk specimens. In: Hayat MA (ed) X-ray microanalysis in biology. Univ Park Press, Baltimore, pp 167–205.
Marshall (1980c) Principles and instrumentation. In: Hayat MA (ed) X-ray microanalysis in biology. Univ Park Press,Baltimore, pp 1–64.
Marshall AT (1981) Simultaneous use of EDS, windowless EDS, BE and SE detectors and digital real-time line scanning for the X-ray microanalysis of frozen-hydrated biological specimens. Scanning Electron Microsc 1981/II:327–343.
Marshall AT (1982) Application of ø(ϱz) curves and a windowless detector to the quantitative X-ray microanalysis of frozen-hydrated bulk biological specimens. Scanning Electron Microsc 1982/I:243–260.
Marshall AT (1983) X-ray microanalysis of the filter chamber of the cicada, Cyclochila australasiae Don. A water shunting epithelial complex. Cell Tissue Res 231:215–277.
Marshall AT (1984a) The windowless energy dispersive X-ray detector: prospects for a role in biological X-ray microanalysis. Scanning Electron Microsc 1984/II:493–504.
Marshall AT (1984b) Residual gas analysis in a SEM. J Microsc (Oxford) 133:119–120.
Marshall AT, Carde D (1983) Beryllium coating for biological X-ray microanalysis. J Microsc (Oxford) 134:113–116.
Marshall AT, Condron RJ (1985a) X-ray microanalytical resolution in frozen-hydrated biological bulk samples. J Microsc (Oxford) 140:109–118.
Marshall AT, Condron RJ (1985b) Normalisation of light element X-ray intensities for surface topography effects in frozen-hydrated biological bulk samples. J Microsc (Oxford) 140:99–108.
Marshall AT, Condron RJ (1987) A simple method of using ø(ϱz) curves for the X-ray microanalysis of frozen-hydrated bulk biological samples. Micron Microsc Acta 18:23–26.
Marshall AT, Wright A (1973) Detection of ions in insect osmoregulatory systems by electron probe X-ray microanalysis using scanning electron microscopy and a cryoscopic technique. Micron 4:31–45.
Marshall AT, Carde D, Kent MJ (1982) Low temperature stages for the JSM35 SEM and the JEE4B coating unit. Micron 13:313–314.
Marshall AT, Carde D, Kent MJ (1985a) Improved vacuum evaporation unit for beryllium coating for biological X-ray microanalysis. J Microsc (Oxford) 139:335–337.
Marshall AT, Hyatt AD, Phillips JG, Condron RJ (1985b) Isosmotic secretion in the avian nasal salt gland: X-ray microanalysis of luminal and intracellular ion distribution. J Comp Physiol B 156:213–227.
Nei T, Yotsumoto H, Hasegawa Y, Nagasawa Y (1972) Electron microscopic observation of biological specimen in their native state by employing cryogenic techniques. In: Arceneaux CJ (ed) Proc 30th Annu Electron Microsc Soc Am, Los Angeles, pp 410–411.
Nei T, Yotsumoto H, Hasegawa Y, Nagasawa Y (1973) Direct observation of frozen specimens with a scanning electron microscope. J Electron Microsc 22:185–190.
Oates K, Potts WTW (1985) Electron beam penetration and X-ray excitation depth in ice. Micron Microsc Acta 16:1–4.
Parobek L, Brown JD (1978) The atomic number and absorption corrections in electron microprobe analysis at low electron energies. X-ray Spectrometry 7:26–30.
Pawley JB, Norton JT (1978) A chamber attached to the SEM for fracturing and coating frozen biological samples. J Microsc (Oxford) 112:169–182.
Plattner H, Bachmann L (1982) Cryofixation: A tool in biological ultrastructural research. Int Rev Cytol 79:237–304.
Potts WTW, Oates K (1983) The ionic concentrations in the mitochondria rich or chloride cell of Fundulus heteroclitus. J Exp Zool 227:349–359.
Reed SJB (1975) Electron microprobe analysis. Univ Press, Cambridge, pp 1–400.
Robards AW, Crosby P (1979) A comprehensive freezing, fracturing and coating system for low temperature scanning electron microscopy. Scanning Electron Microsc 1979/II:325–344.
Robards AW, Sleytr UB (1985) Low temperature methods in biological electron microscopy. In: Glauert AM (ed) Practical methods in electron microscopy, vol 10. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Robinson VNE (1975) A simple technique for examining frozen hydrated specimens in the scanning electron microscope. J Microsc (Oxford) 104:287–292.
Roomans GM (1981) Quantitative electron probe X-ray microanalysis of biological bulk specimens. Scanning Electron Microsc. 1981/II:345–356.
Talmon Y (1984) Radiation damage to organic inclusions in ice. Ultramicroscopy 14:305–316.
Talmon Y, Thomas EL (1977) Beam heating of a moderately thick cold stage specimen in the SEM/STEM. J Microsc (Oxford) 111:151–164.
Taylor PG, Burgess A (1977) Cold stage for electron probe microanalyser. J Microsc (Oxford) 111:51–64.
Tokunaga J, Tokunaga M (1973) Cryo-scanning microscopy of conidiospores formations in Aspergillus niger. Jeol News 11e(1):3–7.
Turner RH, Smith CB (1974) A simple technique of examining fresh, frozen, biological specimens in the scanning electron microscope. J Microsc (Oxford) 102:209–214.
Umrath W (1983) Berechnung der Gefriertrocknungszeiten für die elektronenmikroskopische Präparation. Mikroskopie (Wien) 40:9–37.
Whitecross MI, Price GD, Preston JS (1982) Use of colloidal graphite in frozen-hydrated standard solutions for X-ray microanalysis. J Microsc (Oxford) 128:RP3–RP4.
Yeo AR, Läuchli A, Kramer D, Gullasch J (1977) Ion measurements by X-ray microanalysis in unfixed, frozen, hydrated plant cells of species differing in salt tolerance. Planta 134:35–38.
Zierold K (1976) X-ray microanalysis of cryo-fractured tissue specimens of the rat. In: Ben Shaul Y (ed) Electron microscopy 1976, vol 2. Proc 6th Eur Congr Electron Microsc, Israel Soc Electron Microsc, Jerusalem, pp 223–225.
Zierold K, Schäfer D (1978) Quantitative X-ray microanalysis of diffusible ions in skeletal muscle bulk specimens. J Microsc (Oxford) 112:89–93.
Zs.-Nagy I, Pieri C, Giuli C, Bertoni-Freddari C, Zsa.-Nagy V (1977) Energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis of the electrolytes in biological bulk specimens. I. Specimen preparation, beam penetration and quantitative analysis. J Ultrastruct Res 58:22–33.
Zs.-Nagy I, Lustyik G, Bertoni-Freddari C (1982) Intracellular water and dry mass content as measured in bulk specimens by energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis. Tissue Cell 14:47–60.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1987 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Marshall, A.T. (1987). Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis of Frozen-Hydrated Bulk Samples. In: Steinbrecht, R.A., Zierold, K. (eds) Cryotechniques in Biological Electron Microscopy. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-72815-0_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-72815-0_13
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-72817-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-72815-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive