Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

High-Grade Glioma, Including Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Brain Tumors in Children

  • 1121 Accesses

Abstract

High-grade gliomas (HGG), including anaplastic astrocytoma and glioblastoma, are diffusely infiltrating, malignant tumors of the central nervous system. HGG may arise at any age and, with rare exceptions, are uniformly fatal despite aggressive multimodal therapies including surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. Recent genomic studies have identified oncogenic driver mutations linked to distinct biological subgroups of this disease, which differ in regard to age at presentation, anatomical location, and clinical behavior. This chapter will provide a brief historical overview of the diagnosis and treatment of HGG, followed by a discussion of current neuroimaging techniques, neurosurgical considerations, neuropathology (including molecular diagnostics), radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. The chapter will conclude with an outlook for the future, including novel therapies such as molecular targeted agents and immunotherapy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andersen AP (1978) Postoperative irradiation of glioblastomas. Results in a randomized series. Acta Radiol Oncol Radiat Phys Biol 17(6):475–484

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ardon H, De Vleeschouwer S, Van Calenbergh F, Claes L, Kramm CM, Rutkowski S, Wolff JE, Van Gool SW (2010) Adjuvant dendritic cell-based tumour vaccination for children with malignant brain tumours. Pediatr Blood Cancer 54(4):519–525. https://doi.org/10.1002/pbc.22319

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bady P, Sciuscio D, Diserens AC, Bloch J, van den Bent MJ, Marosi C, Dietrich PY, Weller M, Mariani L, Heppner FL, McDonald DR, Lacombe D, Stupp R, Delorenzi M, Hegi ME (2012) MGMT methylation analysis of glioblastoma on the Infinium methylation BeadChip identifies two distinct CpG regions associated with gene silencing and outcome, yielding a prediction model for comparisons across datasets, tumor grades, and CIMP-status. Acta Neuropathol 124(4):547–560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-012-1016-2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bakry D, Aronson M, Durno C, Rimawi H, Farah R, Alharbi QK, Alharbi M, Shamvil A, Ben-Shachar S, Mistry M, Constantini S, Dvir R, Qaddoumi I, Gallinger S, Lerner-Ellis J, Pollett A, Stephens D, Kelies S, Chao E, Malkin D, Bouffet E, Hawkins C, Tabori U (2014) Genetic and clinical determinants of constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome: report from the constitutional mismatch repair deficiency consortium. Eur J Cancer 50(5):987–996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2013.12.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barbagallo GM, Certo F, Heiss K, Albanese V (2014) 5-ALA fluorescence-assisted surgery in pediatric brain tumors: report of three cases and review of the literature. Br J Neurosurg 28(6):750–754. https://doi.org/10.3109/02688697.2014.913779

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bax DA, Gaspar N, Little SE, Marshall L, Perryman L, Regairaz M, Viana-Pereira M, Vuononvirta R, Sharp SY, Reis-Filho JS, Stavale JN, Al-Sarraj S, Reis RM, Vassal G, Pearson AD, Hargrave D, Ellison DW, Workman P, Jones C (2009) EGFRvIII deletion mutations in pediatric high-grade glioma and response to targeted therapy in pediatric glioma cell lines. Clin Cancer Res 15(18):5753–5761. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-08-3210

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bechet D, Gielen GG, Korshunov A, Pfister SM, Rousso C, Faury D, Fiset PO, Benlimane N, Lewis PW, Lu C, David Allis C, Kieran MW, Ligon KL, Pietsch T, Ellezam B, Albrecht S, Jabado N (2014) Specific detection of methionine 27 mutation in histone 3 variants (H3K27M) in fixed tissue from high-grade astrocytomas. Acta Neuropathol 128(5):733–741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-014-1337-4

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Beez T, Sarikaya-Seiwert S, Steiger HJ, Hanggi D (2014) Fluorescence-guided surgery with 5-aminolevulinic acid for resection of brain tumors in children--a technical report. Acta Neurochir 156(3):597–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-014-1997-9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beiko J, Suki D, Hess KR, Fox BD, Cheung V, Cabral M, Shonka N, Gilbert MR, Sawaya R, Prabhu SS, Weinberg J, Lang FF, Aldape KD, Sulman EP, Rao G, McCutcheon IE, Cahill DP (2014) IDH1 mutant malignant astrocytomas are more amenable to surgical resection and have a survival benefit associated with maximal surgical resection. Neuro-Oncology 16(1):81–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/not159

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benesch M, Wagner S, Berthold F, Wolff JE (2005) Primary dissemination of high-grade gliomas in children: experiences from four studies of the Pediatric Oncology and Hematology Society of the German Language Group (GPOH). J Neuro-Oncol 72(2):179–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-004-3546-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bleehen NM, Stenning SP (1991) A Medical Research Council trial of two radiotherapy doses in the treatment of grades 3 and 4 astrocytoma. The Medical Research Council Brain Tumour Working Party. Br J Cancer 64(4):769–774

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bleehen NM, Wiltshire CR, Plowman PN, Watson JV, Gleave JR, Holmes AE, Lewin WS, Treip CS, Hawkins TD (1981) A randomized study of misonidazole and radiotherapy for grade 3 and 4 cerebral astrocytoma. Br J Cancer 43(4):436–442

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bouffet E, Larouche V, Campbell BB, Merico D, de Borja R, Aronson M, Durno C, Krueger J, Cabric V, Ramaswamy V, Zhukova N, Mason G, Farah R, Afzal S, Yalon M, Rechavi G, Magimairajan V, Walsh MF, Constantini S, Dvir R, Elhasid R, Reddy A, Osborn M, Sullivan M, Hansford J, Dodgshun A, Klauber-Demore N, Peterson L, Patel S, Lindhorst S, Atkinson J, Cohen Z, Laframboise R, Dirks P, Taylor M, Malkin D, Albrecht S, Dudley RW, Jabado N, Hawkins CE, Shlien A, Tabori U (2016) Immune checkpoint inhibition for hypermutant glioblastoma multiforme resulting from germline biallelic mismatch repair deficiency. J Clin Oncol 34(19):2206–2211. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2016.66.6552

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buczkowicz P, Hoeman C, Rakopoulos P, Pajovic S, Letourneau L, Dzamba M, Morrison A, Lewis P, Bouffet E, Bartels U, Zuccaro J, Agnihotri S, Ryall S, Barszczyk M, Chornenkyy Y, Bourgey M, Bourque G, Montpetit A, Cordero F, Castelo-Branco P, Mangerel J, Tabori U, Ho KC, Huang A, Taylor KR, Mackay A, Bendel AE, Nazarian J, Fangusaro JR, Karajannis MA, Zagzag D, Foreman NK, Donson A, Hegert JV, Smith A, Chan J, Lafay-Cousin L, Dunn S, Hukin J, Dunham C, Scheinemann K, Michaud J, Zelcer S, Ramsay D, Cain J, Brennan C, Souweidane MM, Jones C, Allis CD, Brudno M, Becher O, Hawkins C (2014) Genomic analysis of diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas identifies three molecular subgroups and recurrent activating ACVR1 mutations. Nat Genet 46(5):451–456. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.2936

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne S, Connor S, Lascelles K, Siddiqui A, Hargrave D, Ferner RE (2017) Clinical presentation and prognostic indicators in 100 adults and children with neurofibromatosis 1 associated non-optic pathway brain gliomas. J Neuro-Oncol 133(3):609–614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-017-2475-z

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cancer Genome Atlas Research N, Brat DJ, Verhaak RG, Aldape KD, Yung WK, Salama SR, Cooper LA, Rheinbay E, Miller CR, Vitucci M, Morozova O, Robertson AG, Noushmehr H, Laird PW, Cherniack AD, Akbani R, Huse JT, Ciriello G, Poisson LM, Barnholtz-Sloan JS, Berger MS, Brennan C, Colen RR, Colman H, Flanders AE, Giannini C, Grifford M, Iavarone A, Jain R, Joseph I, Kim J, Kasaian K, Mikkelsen T, Murray BA, O’Neill BP, Pachter L, Parsons DW, Sougnez C, Sulman EP, Vandenberg SR, Van Meir EG, von Deimling A, Zhang H, Crain D, Lau K, Mallery D, Morris S, Paulauskis J, Penny R, Shelton T, Sherman M, Yena P, Black A, Bowen J, Dicostanzo K, Gastier-Foster J, Leraas KM, Lichtenberg TM, Pierson CR, Ramirez NC, Taylor C, Weaver S, Wise L, Zmuda E, Davidsen T, Demchok JA, Eley G, Ferguson ML, Hutter CM, Mills Shaw KR, Ozenberger BA, Sheth M, Sofia HJ, Tarnuzzer R, Wang Z, Yang L, Zenklusen JC, Ayala B, Baboud J, Chudamani S, Jensen MA, Liu J, Pihl T, Raman R, Wan Y, Wu Y, Ally A, Auman JT, Balasundaram M, Balu S, Baylin SB, Beroukhim R, Bootwalla MS, Bowlby R, Bristow CA, Brooks D, Butterfield Y, Carlsen R, Carter S, Chin L, Chu A, Chuah E, Cibulskis K, Clarke A, Coetzee SG, Dhalla N, Fennell T, Fisher S, Gabriel S, Getz G, Gibbs R, Guin R, Hadjipanayis A, Hayes DN, Hinoue T, Hoadley K, Holt RA, Hoyle AP, Jefferys SR, Jones S, Jones CD, Kucherlapati R, Lai PH, Lander E, Lee S, Lichtenstein L, Ma Y, Maglinte DT, Mahadeshwar HS, Marra MA, Mayo M, Meng S, Meyerson ML, Mieczkowski PA, Moore RA, Mose LE, Mungall AJ, Pantazi A, Parfenov M, Park PJ, Parker JS, Perou CM, Protopopov A, Ren X, Roach J, Sabedot TS, Schein J, Schumacher SE, Seidman JG, Seth S, Shen H, Simons JV, Sipahimalani P, Soloway MG, Song X, Sun H, Tabak B, Tam A, Tan D, Tang J, Thiessen N, Triche T Jr, Van Den Berg DJ, Veluvolu U, Waring S, Weisenberger DJ, Wilkerson MD, Wong T, Wu J, Xi L, Xu AW, Yang L, Zack TI, Zhang J, Aksoy BA, Arachchi H, Benz C, Bernard B, Carlin D, Cho J, DiCara D, Frazer S, Fuller GN, Gao J, Gehlenborg N, Haussler D, Heiman DI, Iype L, Jacobsen A, Ju Z, Katzman S, Kim H, Knijnenburg T, Kreisberg RB, Lawrence MS, Lee W, Leinonen K, Lin P, Ling S, Liu W, Liu Y, Liu Y, Lu Y, Mills G, Ng S, Noble MS, Paull E, Rao A, Reynolds S, Saksena G, Sanborn Z, Sander C, Schultz N, Senbabaoglu Y, Shen R, Shmulevich I, Sinha R, Stuart J, Sumer SO, Sun Y, Tasman N, Taylor BS, Voet D, Weinhold N, Weinstein JN, Yang D, Yoshihara K, Zheng S, Zhang W, Zou L, Abel T, Sadeghi S, Cohen ML, Eschbacher J, Hattab EM, Raghunathan A, Schniederjan MJ, Aziz D, Barnett G, Barrett W, Bigner DD, Boice L, Brewer C, Calatozzolo C, Campos B, Carlotti CG Jr, Chan TA, Cuppini L, Curley E, Cuzzubbo S, Devine K, DiMeco F, Duell R, Elder JB, Fehrenbach A, Finocchiaro G, Friedman W, Fulop J, Gardner J, Hermes B, Herold-Mende C, Jungk C, Kendler A, Lehman NL, Lipp E, Liu O, Mandt R, McGraw M, McLendon R, McPherson C, Neder L, Nguyen P, Noss A, Nunziata R, Ostrom QT, Palmer C, Perin A, Pollo B, Potapov A, Potapova O, Rathmell WK, Rotin D, Scarpace L, Schilero C, Senecal K, Shimmel K, Shurkhay V, Sifri S, Singh R, Sloan AE, Smolenski K, Staugaitis SM, Steele R, Thorne L, Tirapelli DP, Unterberg A, Vallurupalli M, Wang Y, Warnick R, Williams F, Wolinsky Y, Bell S, Rosenberg M, Stewart C, Huang F, Grimsby JL, Radenbaugh AJ, Zhang J (2015) Comprehensive, integrative genomic analysis of diffuse lower-grade gliomas. N Engl J Med 372(26):2481–2498. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1402121

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Capper D, Weissert S, Balss J, Habel A, Meyer J, Jager D, Ackermann U, Tessmer C, Korshunov A, Zentgraf H, Hartmann C, von Deimling A (2010) Characterization of R132H mutation-specific IDH1 antibody binding in brain tumors. Brain Pathol 20(1):245–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3639.2009.00352.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capper D, Preusser M, Habel A, Sahm F, Ackermann U, Schindler G, Pusch S, Mechtersheimer G, Zentgraf H, von Deimling A (2011) Assessment of BRAF V600E mutation status by immunohistochemistry with a mutation-specific monoclonal antibody. Acta Neuropathol 122(1):11–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-011-0841-z

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cha S, Knopp EA, Johnson G, Wetzel SG, Litt AW, Zagzag D (2002) Intracranial mass lesions: dynamic contrast-enhanced susceptibility-weighted echo-planar perfusion MR imaging. Radiology 223(1):11–29

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain MC (2013) Salvage therapy with BRAF inhibitors for recurrent pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma: a retrospective case series. J Neuro-Oncol 114(2):237–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-013-1176-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chang EL, Akyurek S, Avalos T, Rebueno N, Spicer C, Garcia J, Famiglietti R, Allen PK, Chao KS, Mahajan A, Woo SY, Maor MH (2007) Evaluation of peritumoral edema in the delineation of radiotherapy clinical target volumes for glioblastoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 68(1):144–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2006.12.009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chinot OL, Wick W, Mason W, Henriksson R, Saran F, Nishikawa R, Carpentier AF, Hoang-Xuan K, Kavan P, Cernea D, Brandes AA, Hilton M, Abrey L, Cloughesy T (2014) Bevacizumab plus radiotherapy-temozolomide for newly diagnosed glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 370(8):709–722. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1308345

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choudhri AF, Klimo P Jr, Auschwitz TS, Whitehead MT, Boop FA (2014) 3T intraoperative MRI for management of pediatric CNS neoplasms. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 35(12):2382–2387. https://doi.org/10.3174/ajnr.A4040

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chuba PJ, Aronin P, Bhambhani K, Eichenhorn M, Zamarano L, Cianci P, Muhlbauer M, Porter AT, Fontanesi J (1997) Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for radiation-induced brain injury in children. Cancer 80(10):2005–2012

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen KJ, Pollack IF, Zhou T, Buxton A, Holmes EJ, Burger PC, Brat DJ, Rosenblum MK, Hamilton RL, Lavey RS, Heideman RL (2011) Temozolomide in the treatment of high-grade gliomas in children: a report from the Children’s Oncology Group. Neuro-Oncology 13(3):317–323. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noq191

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Drezner N, Hardy KK, Wells E, Vezina G, Ho CY, Packer RJ, Hwang EI (2016) Treatment of pediatric cerebral radiation necrosis: a systematic review. J Neuro-Oncol 130(1):141–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-016-2219-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duffner PK, Horowitz ME, Krischer JP, Friedman HS, Burger PC, Cohen ME, Sanford RA, Mulhern RK, James HE, Freeman CR et al (1993) Postoperative chemotherapy and delayed radiation in children less than three years of age with malignant brain tumors. N Engl J Med 328(24):1725–1731

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duffner PK, Krischer JP, Burger PC, Cohen ME, Backstrom JW, Horowitz ME, Sanford RA, Friedman HS, Kun LE (1996) Treatment of infants with malignant gliomas: the Pediatric Oncology Group experience. J Neuro-Oncol 28(2–3):245–256

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duffner PK, Horowitz ME, Krischer JP, Burger PC, Cohen ME, Sanford RA, Friedman HS, Kun LE (1999) The treatment of malignant brain tumors in infants and very young children: an update of the Pediatric Oncology Group experience. Neuro-Oncology 1(2):152–161

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dufour C, Grill J, Lellouch-Tubiana A, Puget S, Chastagner P, Frappaz D, Doz F, Pichon F, Plantaz D, Gentet JC, Raquin MA, Kalifa C (2006) High-grade glioma in children under 5 years of age: a chemotherapy only approach with the BBSFOP protocol. Eur J Cancer 42(17):2939–2945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2006.06.021

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eckel-Passow JE, Lachance DH, Molinaro AM, Walsh KM, Decker PA, Sicotte H, Pekmezci M, Rice T, Kosel ML, Smirnov IV, Sarkar G, Caron AA, Kollmeyer TM, Praska CE, Chada AR, Halder C, Hansen HM, McCoy LS, Bracci PM, Marshall R, Zheng S, Reis GF, Pico AR, O'Neill BP, Buckner JC, Giannini C, Huse JT, Perry A, Tihan T, Berger MS, Chang SM, Prados MD, Wiemels J, Wiencke JK, Wrensch MR, Jenkins RB (2015) Glioma Groups based on 1p/19q, IDH, and TERT promoter mutations in Tumors. N Engl J Med 372(26):2499–2508. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1407279

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenstat DD, Pollack IF, Demers A, Sapp MV, Lambert P, Weisfeld-Adams JD, Burger PC, Gilles F, Davis RL, Packer R, Boyett JM, Finlay JL (2015) Impact of tumor location and pathological discordance on survival of children with midline high-grade gliomas treated on Children’s Cancer Group high-grade glioma study CCG-945. J Neuro-Oncol 121(3):573–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-014-1669-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elsamadicy AA, Babu R, Kirkpatrick JP, Adamson DC (2015) Radiation-induced malignant gliomas: a current review. World Neurosurg 83(4):530–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2014.12.009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzek MM, Thornton AF, Rabinov JD, Lev MH, Pardo FS, Munzenrider JE, Okunieff P, Bussiere M, Braun I, Hochberg FH, Hedley-Whyte ET, Liebsch NJ, Harsh GR 4th (1999) Accelerated fractionated proton/photon irradiation to 90 cobalt gray equivalent for glioblastoma multiforme: results of a phase II prospective trial. J Neurosurg 91(2):251–260. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1999.91.2.0251

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fogh SE, Andrews DW, Glass J, Curran W, Glass C, Champ C, Evans JJ, Hyslop T, Pequignot E, Downes B, Comber E, Maltenfort M, Dicker AP, Werner-Wasik M (2010) Hypofractionated stereotactic radiation therapy: an effective therapy for recurrent high-grade gliomas. J Clin Oncol 28(18):3048–3053. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2009.25.6941

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fontebasso AM, Papillon-Cavanagh S, Schwartzentruber J, Nikbakht H, Gerges N, Fiset PO, Bechet D, Faury D, De Jay N, Ramkissoon LA, Corcoran A, Jones DT, Sturm D, Johann P, Tomita T, Goldman S, Nagib M, Bendel A, Goumnerova L, Bowers DC, Leonard JR, Rubin JB, Alden T, Browd S, Geyer JR, Leary S, Jallo G, Cohen K, Gupta N, Prados MD, Carret AS, Ellezam B, Crevier L, Klekner A, Bognar L, Hauser P, Garami M, Myseros J, Dong Z, Siegel PM, Malkin H, Ligon AH, Albrecht S, Pfister SM, Ligon KL, Majewski J, Jabado N, Kieran MW (2014) Recurrent somatic mutations in ACVR1 in pediatric midline high-grade astrocytoma. Nat Genet 46(5):462–466. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.2950

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Funato K, Major T, Lewis PW, Allis CD, Tabar V (2014) Use of human embryonic stem cells to model pediatric gliomas with H3.3K27M histone mutation. Science 346(6216):1529–1533. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1253799

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Furuse M, Nonoguchi N, Kuroiwa T, Miyamoto S, Arakawa Y, Shinoda J, Miwa K, Iuchi T, Tsuboi K, Houkin K, Terasaka S, Tabei Y, Nakamura H, Nagane M, Sugiyama K, Terasaki M, Abe T, Narita Y, Saito N, Mukasa A, Ogasawara K, Beppu T, Kumabe T, Nariai T, Tsuyuguchi N, Nakatani E, Kurisu S, Nakagawa Y, Miyatake SI (2016) A prospective, multicentre, single-arm clinical trial of bevacizumab for patients with surgically untreatable, symptomatic brain radiation necrosisdagger. Neurooncol Pract 3(4):272–280. https://doi.org/10.1093/nop/npv064

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gajjar A, Bowers DC, Karajannis MA, Leary S, Witt H, Gottardo NG (2015) Pediatric brain tumors: innovative genomic information is transforming the diagnostic and clinical landscape. J Clin Oncol 33(27):2986–2998. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2014.59.9217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ge M, Li S, Wang L, Li C, Zhang J (2015) The role of diffusion tensor tractography in the surgical treatment of pediatric optic chiasmatic gliomas. J Neuro-Oncol 122(2):357–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-015-1722-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geyer JR, Finlay JL, Boyett JM, Wisoff J, Yates A, Mao L, Packer RJ (1995) Survival of infants with malignant astrocytomas. A report from the Children’s Cancer Group. Cancer 75(4):1045–1050

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giglio P, Gilbert MR (2003) Cerebral radiation necrosis. Neurologist 9(4):180–188. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nrl.0000080951.78533.c4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert MR, Dignam JJ, Armstrong TS, Wefel JS, Blumenthal DT, Vogelbaum MA, Colman H, Chakravarti A, Pugh S, Won M, Jeraj R, Brown PD, Jaeckle KA, Schiff D, Stieber VW, Brachman DG, Werner-Wasik M, Tremont-Lukats IW, Sulman EP, Aldape KD, Curran WJ Jr, Mehta MP (2014) A randomized trial of bevacizumab for newly diagnosed glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 370(8):699–708. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1308573

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez J, Kumar AJ, Conrad CA, Levin VA (2007) Effect of bevacizumab on radiation necrosis of the brain. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 67(2):323–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2006.10.010

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grasso CS, Tang Y, Truffaux N, Berlow NE, Liu L, Debily MA, Quist MJ, Davis LE, Huang EC, Woo PJ, Ponnuswami A, Chen S, Johung TB, Sun W, Kogiso M, Du Y, Qi L, Huang Y, Hutt-Cabezas M, Warren KE, Le Dret L, Meltzer PS, Mao H, Quezado M, van Vuurden DG, Abraham J, Fouladi M, Svalina MN, Wang N, Hawkins C, Nazarian J, Alonso MM, Raabe EH, Hulleman E, Spellman PT, Li XN, Keller C, Pal R, Grill J, Monje M (2015) Functionally defined therapeutic targets in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Nat Med 21(7):827. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm0715-827a

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith B, Jain R (2015) Perfusion imaging in neuro-oncology: basic techniques and clinical applications. Radiol Clin N Am 53(3):497–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcl.2015.01.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gururangan S, Fangusaro J, Poussaint TY, McLendon RE, Onar-Thomas A, Wu S, Packer RJ, Banerjee A, Gilbertson RJ, Fahey F, Vajapeyam S, Jakacki R, Gajjar A, Goldman S, Pollack IF, Friedman HS, Boyett JM, Fouladi M, Kun LE (2014) Efficacy of bevacizumab plus irinotecan in children with recurrent low-grade gliomas--a pediatric brain tumor consortium study. Neuro-Oncology 16(2):310–317. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/not154

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutin PH, Leibel SA, Wara WM, Choucair A, Levin VA, Philips TL, Silver P, Da Silva V, Edwards MS, Davis RL et al (1987) Recurrent malignant gliomas: survival following interstitial brachytherapy with high-activity iodine-125 sources. J Neurosurg 67(6):864–873. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1987.67.6.0864

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutin PH, Iwamoto FM, Beal K, Mohile NA, Karimi S, Hou BL, Lymberis S, Yamada Y, Chang J, Abrey LE (2009) Safety and efficacy of bevacizumab with hypofractionated stereotactic irradiation for recurrent malignant gliomas. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 75(1):156–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2008.10.043

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Guzman-De-Villoria JA, Mateos-Perez JM, Fernandez-Garcia P, Castro E, Desco M (2014) Added value of advanced over conventional magnetic resonance imaging in grading gliomas and other primary brain tumors. Cancer Imaging 14(1):35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40644-014-0035-8

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Halperin EC, Bentel G, Heinz ER, Burger PC (1989) Radiation therapy treatment planning in supratentorial glioblastoma multiforme: an analysis based on post mortem topographic anatomy with CT correlations. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 17(6):1347–1350

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamisch C, Kickingereder P, Fischer M, Simon T, Ruge MI (2017) Update on the diagnostic value and safety of stereotactic biopsy for pediatric brainstem tumors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 735 cases. J Neurosurg Pediatr 20(3):261–268. https://doi.org/10.3171/2017.2.PEDS1665

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankinson TC, Campagna EJ, Foreman NK, Handler MH (2011) Interpretation of magnetic resonance images in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma: a survey of pediatric neurosurgeons. J Neurosurg Pediatr 8(1):97–102. https://doi.org/10.3171/2011.4.PEDS1180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hegi ME, Diserens AC, Gorlia T, Hamou MF, de Tribolet N, Weller M, Kros JM, Hainfellner JA, Mason W, Mariani L, Bromberg JE, Hau P, Mirimanoff RO, Cairncross JG, Janzer RC, Stupp R (2005) MGMT gene silencing and benefit from temozolomide in glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 352(10):997–1003. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa043331

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hermanto U, Frija EK, Lii MJ, Chang EL, Mahajan A, Woo SY (2007) Intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) and conventional three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy for high-grade gliomas: does IMRT increase the integral dose to normal brain? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 67(4):1135–1144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2006.10.032

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hochberg FH, Pruitt A (1980) Assumptions in the radiotherapy of glioblastoma. Neurology 30(9):907–911

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman LM, Geller J, Leach J, Boue D, Drissi R, Chen L, Krailo M, Panandiker AP, Chow L, Haas-Kogan D, Jogal S, Nelson M, Jakacki R, Kieran M, Cohen K, Pollack I, Gajjar A, Fouladi M (2015) A feasibility and randomized phase II study of Vorinostat, Bevacizumab, or Temozolomide during radiation followed by maintenance chemotherapy in newly-diagnosed pediatric high-grade glioma: Children’s Oncology Group Study Acns0822. Neuro-Oncology 17:39–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsiao SJ, Karajannis MA, Diolaiti D, Mansukhani MM, Bender JG, Kung AL, Garvin JH Jr (2017) A novel, potentially targetable TMEM106B-BRAF fusion in pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma. Cold Spring Harb Mol Case Stud 3(2):a001396. https://doi.org/10.1101/mcs.a001396

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hyman DM, Puzanov I, Subbiah V, Faris JE, Chau I, Blay JY, Wolf J, Raje NS, Diamond EL, Hollebecque A, Gervais R, Elez-Fernandez ME, Italiano A, Hofheinz RD, Hidalgo M, Chan E, Schuler M, Lasserre SF, Makrutzki M, Sirzen F, Veronese ML, Tabernero J, Baselga J (2015) Vemurafenib in multiple nonmelanoma cancers with BRAF V600 mutations. N Engl J Med 373(8):726–736. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1502309

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ida CM, Rodriguez FJ, Burger PC, Caron AA, Jenkins SM, Spears GM, Aranguren DL, Lachance DH, Giannini C (2015) Pleomorphic Xanthoastrocytoma: natural history and long-term follow-up. Brain Pathol 25(5):575–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/bpa.12217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jakacki RI, Cohen KJ, Buxton A, Krailo MD, Burger PC, Rosenblum MK, Brat DJ, Hamilton RL, Eckel SP, Zhou T, Lavey RS, Pollack IF (2016) Phase 2 study of concurrent radiotherapy and temozolomide followed by temozolomide and lomustine in the treatment of children with high-grade glioma: a report of the Children’s Oncology Group ACNS0423 study. Neuro-Oncology 18(10):1442–1450. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/now038

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen MH, van Vuurden DG, Vandertop WP, Kaspers GJ (2012) Diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas: a systematic update on clinical trials and biology. Cancer Treat Rev 38(1):27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctrv.2011.06.007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson BE, Mazor T, Hong C, Barnes M, Aihara K, McLean CY, Fouse SD, Yamamoto S, Ueda H, Tatsuno K, Asthana S, Jalbert LE, Nelson SJ, Bollen AW, Gustafson WC, Charron E, Weiss WA, Smirnov IV, Song JS, Olshen AB, Cha S, Zhao Y, Moore RA, Mungall AJ, Jones SJ, Hirst M, Marra MA, Saito N, Aburatani H, Mukasa A, Berger MS, Chang SM, Taylor BS, Costello JF (2014) Mutational analysis reveals the origin and therapy-driven evolution of recurrent glioma. Science 343(6167):189–193. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1239947

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahramancetin N, Tihan T (2013) Aggressive behavior and anaplasia in pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma: a plea for a revision of the current WHO classification. CNS Oncol 2(6):523–530. https://doi.org/10.2217/cns.13.56

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly PJ, Daumas-Duport C, Kispert DB, Kall BA, Scheithauer BW, Illig JJ (1987) Imaging-based stereotaxic serial biopsies in untreated intracranial glial neoplasms. J Neurosurg 66(6):865–874. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1987.66.6.0865

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kline CN, Joseph NM, Grenert JP, van Ziffle J, Talevich E, Onodera C, Aboian M, Cha S, Raleigh DR, Braunstein S, Torkildson J, Samuel D, Bloomer M, Campomanes AGA, Banerjee A, Butowski N, Raffel C, Tihan T, Bollen AW, Phillips JJ, Korn WM, Yeh I, Bastian BC, Gupta N, Mueller S, Perry A, Nicolaides T, Solomon DA (2017) Targeted next-generation sequencing of pediatric neuro-oncology patients improves diagnosis, identifies pathogenic germline mutations, and directs targeted therapy. Neuro-Oncology 19(5):699–709. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/now254

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koelsche C, Sahm F, Capper D, Reuss D, Sturm D, Jones DT, Kool M, Northcott PA, Wiestler B, Bohmer K, Meyer J, Mawrin C, Hartmann C, Mittelbronn M, Platten M, Brokinkel B, Seiz M, Herold-Mende C, Unterberg A, Schittenhelm J, Weller M, Pfister S, Wick W, Korshunov A, von Deimling A (2013) Distribution of TERT promoter mutations in pediatric and adult tumors of the nervous system. Acta Neuropathol 126(6):907–915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-013-1195-5

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korones DN, Smith A, Foreman N, Bouffet E (2006) Temozolomide and oral VP-16 for children and young adults with recurrent or treatment-induced malignant gliomas. Pediatr Blood Cancer 47(1):37–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/pbc.20510

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korshunov A, Ryzhova M, Hovestadt V, Bender S, Sturm D, Capper D, Meyer J, Schrimpf D, Kool M, Northcott PA, Zheludkova O, Milde T, Witt O, Kulozik AE, Reifenberger G, Jabado N, Perry A, Lichter P, von Deimling A, Pfister SM, Jones DT (2015) Integrated analysis of pediatric glioblastoma reveals a subset of biologically favorable tumors with associated molecular prognostic markers. Acta Neuropathol 129(5):669–678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-015-1405-4

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korshunov A, Capper D, Reuss D, Schrimpf D, Ryzhova M, Hovestadt V, Sturm D, Meyer J, Jones C, Zheludkova O, Kumirova E, Golanov A, Kool M, Schuller U, Mittelbronn M, Hasselblatt M, Schittenhelm J, Reifenberger G, Herold-Mende C, Lichter P, von Deimling A, Pfister SM, Jones DT (2016) Histologically distinct neuroepithelial tumors with histone 3 G34 mutation are molecularly similar and comprise a single nosologic entity. Acta Neuropathol 131(1):137–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-015-1493-1

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korshunov A, Schrimpf D, Ryzhova M, Sturm D, Chavez L, Hovestadt V, Sharma T, Habel A, Burford A, Jones C, Zheludkova O, Kumirova E, Kramm CM, Golanov A, Capper D, von Deimling A, Pfister SM, Jones DT (2017) H3-/IDH-wild type pediatric glioblastoma is comprised of molecularly and prognostically distinct subtypes with associated oncogenic drivers. Acta Neuropathol 134(3):507–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-017-1710-1

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kristiansen K, Hagen S, Kollevold T, Torvik A, Holme I, Nesbakken R, Hatlevoll R, Lindgren M, Brun A, Lindgren S, Notter G, Andersen AP, Elgen K (1981) Combined modality therapy of operated astrocytomas grade III and IV. Confirmation of the value of postoperative irradiation and lack of potentiation of bleomycin on survival time: a prospective multicenter trial of the Scandinavian Glioblastoma Study Group. Cancer 47(4):649–652

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar AJ, Leeds NE, Fuller GN, Van Tassel P, Maor MH, Sawaya RE, Levin VA (2000) Malignant gliomas: MR imaging spectrum of radiation therapy- and chemotherapy-induced necrosis of the brain after treatment. Radiology 217(2):377–384. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.217.2.r00nv36377

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kupper H, Groeschel S, Alber M, Klose U, Schuhmann MU, Wilke M (2015) Comparison of different tractography algorithms and validation by intraoperative stimulation in a child with a brain tumor. Neuropediatrics 46(1):72–75. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1395346

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lai A, Kharbanda S, Pope WB, Tran A, Solis OE, Peale F, Forrest WF, Pujara K, Carrillo JA, Pandita A, Ellingson BM, Bowers CW, Soriano RH, Schmidt NO, Mohan S, Yong WH, Seshagiri S, Modrusan Z, Jiang Z, Aldape KD, Mischel PS, Liau LM, Escovedo CJ, Chen W, Nghiemphu PL, James CD, Prados MD, Westphal M, Lamszus K, Cloughesy T, Phillips HS (2011) Evidence for sequenced molecular evolution of IDH1 mutant glioblastoma from a distinct cell of origin. J Clin Oncol 29(34):4482–4490. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2010.33.8715

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laperriere NJ, Leung PM, McKenzie S, Milosevic M, Wong S, Glen J, Pintilie M, Bernstein M (1998) Randomized study of brachytherapy in the initial management of patients with malignant astrocytoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 41(5):1005–1011

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lassaletta A, Zapotocky M, Mistry M, Ramaswamy V, Honnorat M, Krishnatry R, Guerreiro Stucklin A, Zhukova N, Arnoldo A, Ryall S, Ling C, McKeown T, Loukides J, Cruz O, de Torres C, Ho CY, Packer RJ, Tatevossian R, Qaddoumi I, Harreld JH, Dalton JD, Mulcahy-Levy J, Foreman N, Karajannis MA, Wang S, Snuderl M, Nageswara Rao A, Giannini C, Kieran M, Ligon KL, Garre ML, Nozza P, Mascelli S, Raso A, Mueller S, Nicolaides T, Silva K, Perbet R, Vasiljevic A, Faure Conter C, Frappaz D, Leary S, Crane C, Chan A, Ng HK, Shi ZF, Mao Y, Finch E, Eisenstat D, Wilson B, Carret AS, Hauser P, Sumerauer D, Krskova L, Larouche V, Fleming A, Zelcer S, Jabado N, Rutka JT, Dirks P, Taylor MD, Chen S, Bartels U, Huang A, Ellison DW, Bouffet E, Hawkins C, Tabori U (2017) Therapeutic and prognostic implications of BRAF V600E in pediatric low-grade gliomas. J Clin Oncol 35(25):2934–2941. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2016.71.8726

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lassman AB, Pugh SL, Gilbert MR, Aldape KD, Geinoz S, Beumer JH, Christner SM, Komaki R, DeAngelis LM, Gaur R, Youssef E, Wagner H, Won M, Mehta MP (2015) Phase 2 trial of dasatinib in target-selected patients with recurrent glioblastoma (RTOG 0627). Neuro-Oncology 17(7):992–998. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nov011

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lee SW, Fraass BA, Marsh LH, Herbort K, Gebarski SS, Martel MK, Radany EH, Lichter AS, Sandler HM (1999) Patterns of failure following high-dose 3-D conformal radiotherapy for high-grade astrocytomas: a quantitative dosimetric study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 43(1):79–88

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee EQ, Ruland S, LeBoeuf NR, Wen PY, Santagata S (2014) Successful treatment of a progressive BRAF V600E-mutated anaplastic pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma with vemurafenib monotherapy. J Clin Oncol 34(10):e87–e89. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2013.51.1766

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li FP, Fraumeni JF Jr, Mulvihill JJ, Blattner WA, Dreyfus MG, Tucker MA, Miller RW (1988) A cancer family syndrome in twenty-four kindreds. Cancer Res 48(18):5358–5362

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linos E, Raine T, Alonso A, Michaud D (2007) Atopy and risk of brain tumors: a meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst 99(20):1544–1550. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djm170

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Louis DN, Perry A, Reifenberger G, von Deimling A, Figarella-Branger D, Cavenee WK, Ohgaki H, Wiestler OD, Kleihues P, Ellison DW (2016) The 2016 World Health Organization classification of tumors of the central nervous system: a summary. Acta Neuropathol 131(6):803–820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-016-1545-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas GL, Luxton G, Cohen D, Petrovich Z, Langholz B, Apuzzo ML, Sapozink MD (1991) Treatment results of stereotactic interstitial brachytherapy for primary and metastatic brain tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 21(3):715–721

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackay A, Burford A, Carvalho D, Izquierdo E, Fazal-Salom J, Taylor KR, Bjerke L, Clarke M, Vinci M, Nandhabalan M, Temelso S, Popov S, Molinari V, Raman P, Waanders AJ, Han HJ, Gupta S, Marshall L, Zacharoulis S, Vaidya S, Mandeville HC, Bridges LR, Martin AJ, Al-Sarraj S, Chandler C, Ng HK, Li X, Mu K, Trabelsi S, Brahim DH, Kisljakov AN, Konovalov DM, Moore AS, Carcaboso AM, Sunol M, de Torres C, Cruz O, Mora J, Shats LI, Stavale JN, Bidinotto LT, Reis RM, Entz-Werle N, Farrell M, Cryan J, Crimmins D, Caird J, Pears J, Monje M, Debily MA, Castel D, Grill J, Hawkins C, Nikbakht H, Jabado N, Baker SJ, Pfister SM, Jones DTW, Fouladi M, von Bueren AO, Baudis M, Resnick A, Jones C (2017) Integrated molecular meta-analysis of 1,000 pediatric high-grade and diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Cancer Cell 32(4):520–537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccell.2017.08.017

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Marucci G, Morandi L (2011) Assessment of MGMT promoter methylation status in pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma. J Neuro-Oncol 105(2):397–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-011-0605-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsukado Y, Maccarty CS, Kernohan JW (1961) The growth of glioblastoma multiforme (astrocytomas, grades 3 and 4) in neurosurgical practice. J Neurosurg 18:636–644. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1961.18.5.0636

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell R, Jackson CM, Lim M (2017) Clinical trials investigating immune checkpoint blockade in glioblastoma. Curr Treat Options in Oncol 18(8):51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11864-017-0492-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCrea HJ, Bander ED, Venn RA, Reiner AS, Iorgulescu JB, Puchi LA, Schaefer PM, Cederquist G, Greenfield JP (2015) Sex, age, anatomic location, and extent of resection influence outcomes in children with high-grade glioma. Neurosurgery 77(3):443–452.; discussion 452–443. https://doi.org/10.1227/NEU.0000000000000845

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald MW, Shu HK, Curran WJ Jr, Crocker IR (2011) Pattern of failure after limited margin radiotherapy and temozolomide for glioblastoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 79(1):130–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2009.10.048

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merchant TE, Hua CH, Shukla H, Ying X, Nill S, Oelfke U (2008) Proton versus photon radiotherapy for common pediatric brain tumors: comparison of models of dose characteristics and their relationship to cognitive function. Pediatr Blood Cancer 51(1):110–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/pbc.21530

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mistry M, Zhukova N, Merico D, Rakopoulos P, Krishnatry R, Shago M, Stavropoulos J, Alon N, Pole JD, Ray PN, Navickiene V, Mangerel J, Remke M, Buczkowicz P, Ramaswamy V, Guerreiro Stucklin A, Li M, Young EJ, Zhang C, Castelo-Branco P, Bakry D, Laughlin S, Shlien A, Chan J, Ligon KL, Rutka JT, Dirks PB, Taylor MD, Greenberg M, Malkin D, Huang A, Bouffet E, Hawkins CE, Tabori U (2015) BRAF mutation and CDKN2A deletion define a clinically distinct subgroup of childhood secondary high-grade glioma. J Clin Oncol 33(9):1015–1022. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2014.58.3922

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mizumoto M, Yamamoto T, Takano S, Ishikawa E, Matsumura A, Ishikawa H, Okumura T, Sakurai H, Miyatake S, Tsuboi K (2015) Long-term survival after treatment of glioblastoma multiforme with hyperfractionated concomitant boost proton beam therapy. Pract Radiat Oncol 5(1):e9–e16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prro.2014.03.012

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moshel YA, Elliott RE, Monoky DJ, Wisoff JH (2009) Role of diffusion tensor imaging in resection of thalamic juvenile pilocytic astrocytoma. J Neurosurg Pediatr 4(6):495–505. https://doi.org/10.3171/2009.7.PEDS09128

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MRC Working Party (1983) A study of the effect of misonidazole in conjunction with radiotherapy for the treatment of grades 3 and 4 astrocytomas. A report from the MRC Working Party on misonidazole in gliomas. Br J Radiol 56(669):673–682. https://doi.org/10.1259/0007-1285-56-669-673

  • Narayana A, Yamada J, Berry S, Shah P, Hunt M, Gutin PH, Leibel SA (2006) Intensity-modulated radiotherapy in high-grade gliomas: clinical and dosimetric results. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 64(3):892–897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2005.05.067

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Narayana A, Kunnakkat S, Chacko-Mathew J, Gardner S, Karajannis M, Raza S, Wisoff J, Weiner H, Harter D, Allen J (2010) Bevacizumab in recurrent high-grade pediatric gliomas. Neuro-Oncology 12(9):985–990. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/noq033

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nieder C, Andratschke N, Wiedenmann N, Busch R, Grosu AL, Molls M (2004) Radiotherapy for high-grade gliomas. Does altered fractionation improve the outcome? Strahlenther Onkol 180(7):401–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00066-004-1220-7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nikbakht H, Panditharatna E, Mikael LG, Li R, Gayden T, Osmond M, Ho CY, Kambhampati M, Hwang EI, Faury D, Siu A, Papillon-Cavanagh S, Bechet D, Ligon KL, Ellezam B, Ingram WJ, Stinson C, Moore AS, Warren KE, Karamchandani J, Packer RJ, Jabado N, Majewski J, Nazarian J (2016) Spatial and temporal homogeneity of driver mutations in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Nat Commun 7:11185. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11185

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Olson JJ, Nayak L, Ormond DR, Wen PY, Kalkanis SN, Ryken TC, Committee ACJG (2014) The role of targeted therapies in the management of progressive glioblastoma : a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J Neuro-Oncol 118(3):557–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-013-1339-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orillac C, Thomas C, Dastagirzada Y, Hidalgo ET, Golfinos JG, Zagzag D, Wisoff JH, Karajannis MA, Snuderl M (2016) Pilocytic astrocytoma and glioneuronal tumor with histone H3 K27M mutation. Acta Neuropathol Commun 4(1):84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-016-0361-0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Park KJ, Kano H, Iyer A, Liu X, Niranjan A, Flickinger JC, Lieberman FS, Lunsford LD, Kondziolka D (2012) Salvage gamma knife stereotactic radiosurgery followed by bevacizumab for recurrent glioblastoma multiforme: a case-control study. J Neuro-Oncol 107(2):323–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-011-0744-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patel AP, Tirosh I, Trombetta JJ, Shalek AK, Gillespie SM, Wakimoto H, Cahill DP, Nahed BV, Curry WT, Martuza RL, Louis DN, Rozenblatt-Rosen O, Suva ML, Regev A, Bernstein BE (2014) Single-cell RNA-seq highlights intratumoral heterogeneity in primary glioblastoma. Science 344(6190):1396–1401. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254257

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paugh BS, Qu C, Jones C, Liu Z, Adamowicz-Brice M, Zhang J, Bax DA, Coyle B, Barrow J, Hargrave D, Lowe J, Gajjar A, Zhao W, Broniscer A, Ellison DW, Grundy RG, Baker SJ (2010) Integrated molecular genetic profiling of pediatric high-grade gliomas reveals key differences with the adult disease. J Clin Oncol 28(18):3061–3068. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2009.26.7252

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paugh BS, Broniscer A, Qu C, Miller CP, Zhang J, Tatevossian RG, Olson JM, Geyer JR, Chi SN, da Silva NS, Onar-Thomas A, Baker JN, Gajjar A, Ellison DW, Baker SJ (2011) Genome-wide analyses identify recurrent amplifications of receptor tyrosine kinases and cell-cycle regulatory genes in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. J Clin Oncol 29(30):3999–4006. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2011.35.5677

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Payne DG, Simpson WJ, Keen C, Platts ME (1982) Malignant astrocytoma: hyperfractionated and standard radiotherapy with chemotherapy in a randomized prospective clinical trial. Cancer 50(11):2301–2306

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips JJ, Aranda D, Ellison DW, Judkins AR, Croul SE, Brat DJ, Ligon KL, Horbinski C, Venneti S, Zadeh G, Santi M, Zhou S, Appin CL, Sioletic S, Sullivan LM, Martinez-Lage M, Robinson AE, Yong WH, Cloughesy T, Lai A, Phillips HS, Marshall R, Mueller S, Haas-Kogan DA, Molinaro AM, Perry A (2013) PDGFRA amplification is common in pediatric and adult high-grade astrocytomas and identifies a poor prognostic group in IDH1 mutant glioblastoma. Brain Pathol 23(5):565–573. https://doi.org/10.1111/bpa.12043

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack IF, Hamilton RL, Finkelstein SD, Campbell JW, Martinez AJ, Sherwin RN, Bozik ME, Gollin SM (1997) The relationship between TP53 mutations and overexpression of p53 and prognosis in malignant gliomas of childhood. Cancer Res 57(2):304–309

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack IF, Finkelstein SD, Woods J, Burnham J, Holmes EJ, Hamilton RL, Yates AJ, Boyett JM, Finlay JL, Sposto R, Children’s Cancer G (2002) Expression of p53 and prognosis in children with malignant gliomas. N Engl J Med 346(6):420–427. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa012224

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack IF, Boyett JM, Yates AJ, Burger PC, Gilles FH, Davis RL, Finlay JL, Children’s Cancer G (2003) The influence of central review on outcome associations in childhood malignant gliomas: results from the CCG-945 experience. Neuro-Oncology 5(3):197–207. https://doi.org/10.1215/S1152-8517-03-00009-7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack IF, Hamilton RL, James CD, Finkelstein SD, Burnham J, Yates AJ, Holmes EJ, Zhou T, Finlay JL, Children’s Oncology G (2006) Rarity of PTEN deletions and EGFR amplification in malignant gliomas of childhood: results from the Children’s Cancer Group 945 cohort. J Neurosurg 105(5 Suppl):418–424. https://doi.org/10.3171/ped.2006.105.5.418

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack IF, Hamilton RL, Sobol RW, Nikiforova MN, Lyons-Weiler MA, LaFramboise WA, Burger PC, Brat DJ, Rosenblum MK, Holmes EJ, Zhou T, Jakacki RI, Children’s Oncology G (2011) IDH1 mutations are common in malignant gliomas arising in adolescents: a report from the Children’s Oncology Group. Childs Nerv Syst 27(1):87–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00381-010-1264-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack IF, Jakacki RI, Butterfield LH, Hamilton RL, Panigrahy A, Potter DM, Connelly AK, Dibridge SA, Whiteside TL, Okada H (2014) Antigen-specific immune responses and clinical outcome after vaccination with glioma-associated antigen peptides and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid stabilized by lysine and carboxymethylcellulose in children with newly diagnosed malignant brainstem and nonbrainstem gliomas. J Clin Oncol 32(19):2050–2058. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2013.54.0526

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Prados MD, Warnick RE, Mack EE, Chandler KL, Rabbitt J, Page M, Malec M (1996) Intravenous carboplatin for recurrent gliomas. A dose-escalating phase II trial. Am J Clin Oncol 19(6):609–612

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prados MD, Wara WM, Sneed PK, McDermott M, Chang SM, Rabbitt J, Page M, Malec M, Davis RL, Gutin PH, Lamborn K, Wilson CB, Phillips TL, Larson DA (2001) Phase III trial of accelerated hyperfractionation with or without difluromethylornithine (DFMO) versus standard fractionated radiotherapy with or without DFMO for newly diagnosed patients with glioblastoma multiforme. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 49(1):71–77

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Qaddoumi I, Sultan I, Gajjar A (2009) Outcome and prognostic features in pediatric gliomas: a review of 6212 cases from the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database. Cancer 115(24):5761–5770. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.24663

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramsey RG, Brand WN (1973) Radiotherapy of glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurosurg 39(2):197–202. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1973.39.2.0197

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rao AA, Laack NN, Giannini C, Wetmore C (2010) Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma in children and adolescents. Pediatr Blood Cancer 55(2):290–294. https://doi.org/10.1002/pbc.22490

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reuss DE, Mamatjan Y, Schrimpf D, Capper D, Hovestadt V, Kratz A, Sahm F, Koelsche C, Korshunov A, Olar A, Hartmann C, Reijneveld JC, Wesseling P, Unterberg A, Platten M, Wick W, Herold-Mende C, Aldape K, von Deimling A (2015) IDH mutant diffuse and anaplastic astrocytomas have similar age at presentation and little difference in survival: a grading problem for WHO. Acta Neuropathol 129(6):867–873. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-015-1438-8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson GW, Orr BA, Gajjar A (2014) Complete clinical regression of a BRAF V600E-mutant pediatric glioblastoma multiforme after BRAF inhibitor therapy. BMC Cancer 14:258. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-14-258

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ruben JD, Dally M, Bailey M, Smith R, McLean CA, Fedele P (2006) Cerebral radiation necrosis: incidence, outcomes, and risk factors with emphasis on radiation parameters and chemotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 65(2):499–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2005.12.002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson JH, Maus MV, June CH (2017) Immunotherapy for brain tumors. J Clin Oncol 35(21):2450–2456. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2017.72.8089

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanai N, Polley MY, McDermott MW, Parsa AT, Berger MS (2011) An extent of resection threshold for newly diagnosed glioblastomas. J Neurosurg 115(1):3–8. https://doi.org/10.3171/2011.2.JNS10998

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandberg-Wollheim M, Malmstrom P, Stromblad LG, Anderson H, Borgstrom S, Brun A, Cronqvist S, Hougaard K, Salford LG (1991) A randomized study of chemotherapy with procarbazine, vincristine, and lomustine with and without radiation therapy for astrocytoma grades 3 and/or 4. Cancer 68(1):22–29

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders RP, Kocak M, Burger PC, Merchant TE, Gajjar A, Broniscer A (2007) High-grade astrocytoma in very young children. Pediatr Blood Cancer 49(7):888–893. https://doi.org/10.1002/pbc.21272

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scharfen CO, Sneed PK, Wara WM, Larson DA, Phillips TL, Prados MD, Weaver KA, Malec M, Acord P, Lamborn KR et al (1992) High activity iodine-125 interstitial implant for gliomas. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 24(4):583–591

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schindler G, Capper D, Meyer J, Janzarik W, Omran H, Herold-Mende C, Schmieder K, Wesseling P, Mawrin C, Hasselblatt M, Louis DN, Korshunov A, Pfister S, Hartmann C, Paulus W, Reifenberger G, von Deimling A (2011) Analysis of BRAF V600E mutation in 1,320 nervous system tumors reveals high mutation frequencies in pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma, ganglioglioma and extra-cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma. Acta Neuropathol 121(3):397–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-011-0802-6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartzentruber J, Korshunov A, Liu XY, Jones DT, Pfaff E, Jacob K, Sturm D, Fontebasso AM, Quang DA, Tonjes M, Hovestadt V, Albrecht S, Kool M, Nantel A, Konermann C, Lindroth A, Jager N, Rausch T, Ryzhova M, Korbel JO, Hielscher T, Hauser P, Garami M, Klekner A, Bognar L, Ebinger M, Schuhmann MU, Scheurlen W, Pekrun A, Fruhwald MC, Roggendorf W, Kramm C, Durken M, Atkinson J, Lepage P, Montpetit A, Zakrzewska M, Zakrzewski K, Liberski PP, Dong Z, Siegel P, Kulozik AE, Zapatka M, Guha A, Malkin D, Felsberg J, Reifenberger G, von Deimling A, Ichimura K, Collins VP, Witt H, Milde T, Witt O, Zhang C, Castelo-Branco P, Lichter P, Faury D, Tabori U, Plass C, Majewski J, Pfister SM, Jabado N (2012) Driver mutations in histone H3.3 and chromatin remodelling genes in paediatric glioblastoma. Nature 482(7384):226–231. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10833

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Selker RG, Shapiro WR, Burger P, Blackwood MS, Arena VC, Gilder JC, Malkin MG, Mealey JJ Jr, Neal JH, Olson J, Robertson JT, Barnett GH, Bloomfield S, Albright R, Hochberg FH, Hiesiger E, Green S, Brain Tumor Cooperative G (2002) The brain tumor cooperative group NIH trial 87-01: a randomized comparison of surgery, external radiotherapy, and carmustine versus surgery, interstitial radiotherapy boost, external radiation therapy, and carmustine. Neurosurgery 51(2):343–355. discussion 355–347

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sethi R, Allen J, Donahue B, Karajannis M, Gardner S, Wisoff J, Kunnakkat S, Mathew J, Zagzag D, Newman K, Narayana A (2011) Prospective neuraxis MRI surveillance reveals a high risk of leptomeningeal dissemination in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. J Neuro-Oncol 102(1):121–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11060-010-0301-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro WR, Green SB, Burger PC, Mahaley MS Jr, Selker RG, VanGilder JC, Robertson JT, Ransohoff J, Mealey J Jr, Strike TA et al (1989) Randomized trial of three chemotherapy regimens and two radiotherapy regimens and two radiotherapy regimens in postoperative treatment of malignant glioma. Brain tumor cooperative group trial 8001. J Neurosurg 71(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1989.71.1.0001

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheline GE (1975) Radiation therapy of primary tumors. Semin Oncol 2(1):29–42

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheline GE, Wara WM, Smith V (1980) Therapeutic irradiation and brain injury. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 6(9):1215–1228

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shrieve DC, Alexander E 3rd, Wen PY, Fine HA, Kooy HM, Black PM, Loeffler JS (1995) Comparison of stereotactic radiosurgery and brachytherapy in the treatment of recurrent glioblastoma multiforme. Neurosurgery 36(2):275–282. discussion 282–274

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snuderl M, Fazlollahi L, Le LP, Nitta M, Zhelyazkova BH, Davidson CJ, Akhavanfard S, Cahill DP, Aldape KD, Betensky RA, Louis DN, Iafrate AJ (2011) Mosaic amplification of multiple receptor tyrosine kinase genes in glioblastoma. Cancer Cell 20(6):810–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2011.11.005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Souhami L, Seiferheld W, Brachman D, Podgorsak EB, Werner-Wasik M, Lustig R, Schultz CJ, Sause W, Okunieff P, Buckner J, Zamorano L, Mehta MP, Curran WJ Jr (2004) Randomized comparison of stereotactic radiosurgery followed by conventional radiotherapy with carmustine to conventional radiotherapy with carmustine for patients with glioblastoma multiforme: report of Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 93-05 protocol. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 60(3):853–860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2004.04.011

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sposto R, Ertel IJ, Jenkin RD, Boesel CP, Venes JL, Ortega JA, Evans AE, Wara W, Hammond D (1989) The effectiveness of chemotherapy for treatment of high grade astrocytoma in children: results of a randomized trial. A report from the Children’s Cancer Study Group. J Neuro-Oncol 7(2):165–177

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Srinivasan VM, Ferguson SD, Lee S, Weathers SP, Kerrigan BCP, Heimberger AB (2017) Tumor vaccines for malignant gliomas. Neurotherapeutics 14(2):345–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-017-0522-2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stupp R, Mason WP, van den Bent MJ, Weller M, Fisher B, Taphoorn MJ, Belanger K, Brandes AA, Marosi C, Bogdahn U, Curschmann J, Janzer RC, Ludwin SK, Gorlia T, Allgeier A, Lacombe D, Cairncross JG, Eisenhauer E, Mirimanoff RO, European Organisation for R, Treatment of Cancer Brain T, Radiotherapy G, National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials G (2005) Radiotherapy plus concomitant and adjuvant temozolomide for glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 352(10):987–996. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa043330

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sturm D, Witt H, Hovestadt V, Khuong-Quang DA, Jones DT, Konermann C, Pfaff E, Tonjes M, Sill M, Bender S, Kool M, Zapatka M, Becker N, Zucknick M, Hielscher T, Liu XY, Fontebasso AM, Ryzhova M, Albrecht S, Jacob K, Wolter M, Ebinger M, Schuhmann MU, van Meter T, Fruhwald MC, Hauch H, Pekrun A, Radlwimmer B, Niehues T, von Komorowski G, Durken M, Kulozik AE, Madden J, Donson A, Foreman NK, Drissi R, Fouladi M, Scheurlen W, von Deimling A, Monoranu C, Roggendorf W, Herold-Mende C, Unterberg A, Kramm CM, Felsberg J, Hartmann C, Wiestler B, Wick W, Milde T, Witt O, Lindroth AM, Schwartzentruber J, Faury D, Fleming A, Zakrzewska M, Liberski PP, Zakrzewski K, Hauser P, Garami M, Klekner A, Bognar L, Morrissy S, Cavalli F, Taylor MD, van Sluis P, Koster J, Versteeg R, Volckmann R, Mikkelsen T, Aldape K, Reifenberger G, Collins VP, Majewski J, Korshunov A, Lichter P, Plass C, Jabado N, Pfister SM (2012) Hotspot mutations in H3F3A and IDH1 define distinct epigenetic and biological subgroups of glioblastoma. Cancer Cell 22(4):425–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2012.08.024

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sturm D, Bender S, Jones DT, Lichter P, Grill J, Becher O, Hawkins C, Majewski J, Jones C, Costello JF, Iavarone A, Aldape K, Brennan CW, Jabado N, Pfister SM (2014) Paediatric and adult glioblastoma: multiform (epi)genomic culprits emerge. Nat Rev Cancer 14(2):92–107. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc3655

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Suerink M, Potjer TP, Versluijs AB, Ten Broeke SW, Tops CM, Wimmer K, Nielsen M (2017) Constitutional mismatch repair deficiency in a healthy child: on the spot diagnosis? Clin Genet 93(1):134–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/cge.13053

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taal W, Brandsma D, de Bruin HG, Bromberg JE, Swaak-Kragten AT, Smitt PA, van Es CA, van den Bent MJ (2008) Incidence of early pseudo-progression in a cohort of malignant glioma patients treated with chemoirradiation with temozolomide. Cancer 113(2):405–410. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.23562

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tavasoli A, Armangue T, Ho CY, Whitehead M, Bornhorst M, Rhee J, Hwang EI, Wells EM, Packer R, van der Knaap MS, Bugiani M, Vanderver A (2017) Alexander disease. J Child Neurol 32(2):184–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073816673263

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor KR, Mackay A, Truffaux N, Butterfield YS, Morozova O, Philippe C, Castel D, Grasso CS, Vinci M, Carvalho D, Carcaboso AM, de Torres C, Cruz O, Mora J, Entz-Werle N, Ingram WJ, Monje M, Hargrave D, Bullock AN, Puget S, Yip S, Jones C, Grill J (2014) Recurrent activating ACVR1 mutations in diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma. Nat Genet 46(5):457–461. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.2925

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tsien C, Moughan J, Michalski JM, Gilbert MR, Purdy J, Simpson J, Kresel JJ, Curran WJ, Diaz A, Mehta MP, Radiation Therapy Oncology Group T (2009) Phase I three-dimensional conformal radiation dose escalation study in newly diagnosed glioblastoma: radiation therapy oncology group trial 98-03. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 73(3):699–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2008.05.034

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urtasun R, Feldstein ML, Partington J, Tanasichuk H, Miller JD, Russell DB, Agboola O, Mielke B (1982) Radiation and nitroimidazoles in supratentorial high grade gliomas: a second clinical trial. Br J Cancer 46(1):101–108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vanan MI, Eisenstat DD (2014) Management of high-grade gliomas in the pediatric patient: past, present, and future. Neurooncol Pract 1(4):145–157. https://doi.org/10.1093/nop/npu022

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner S, Benesch M, Berthold F, Gnekow AK, Rutkowski S, Strater R, Warmuth-Metz M, Kortmann RD, Pietsch T, Wolff JE (2006) Secondary dissemination in children with high-grade malignant gliomas and diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas. Br J Cancer 95(8):991–997. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjc.6603402

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Walker MD, Alexander E Jr, Hunt WE, MacCarty CS, Mahaley MS Jr, Mealey J Jr, Norrell HA, Owens G, Ransohoff J, Wilson CB, Gehan EA, Strike TA (1978) Evaluation of BCNU and/or radiotherapy in the treatment of anaplastic gliomas. A cooperative clinical trial. J Neurosurg 49(3):333–343. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1978.49.3.0333

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker MD, Strike TA, Sheline GE (1979) An analysis of dose-effect relationship in the radiotherapy of malignant gliomas. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 5(10):1725–1731

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker MD, Green SB, Byar DP, Alexander E Jr, Batzdorf U, Brooks WH, Hunt WE, MacCarty CS, Mahaley MS Jr, Mealey J Jr, Owens G, Ransohoff J 2nd, Robertson JT, Shapiro WR, Smith KR Jr, Wilson CB, Strike TA (1980) Randomized comparisons of radiotherapy and nitrosoureas for the treatment of malignant glioma after surgery. N Engl J Med 303(23):1323–1329. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198012043032303

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallner KE, Galicich JH, Krol G, Arbit E, Malkin MG (1989) Patterns of failure following treatment for glioblastoma multiforme and anaplastic astrocytoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 16(6):1405–1409

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walston S, Hamstra DA, Oh K, Woods G, Guiou M, Olshefski RS, Chakravarti A, Williams TM (2015) A multi-institutional experience in pediatric high-grade glioma. Front Oncol 5:28. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2015.00028

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weller M, Felsberg J, Hartmann C, Berger H, Steinbach JP, Schramm J, Westphal M, Schackert G, Simon M, Tonn JC, Heese O, Krex D, Nikkhah G, Pietsch T, Wiestler O, Reifenberger G, von Deimling A, Loeffler M (2009) Molecular predictors of progression-free and overall survival in patients with newly diagnosed glioblastoma: a prospective translational study of the German Glioma Network. J Clin Oncol 27(34):5743–5750. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2009.23.0805

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weller M, Tabatabai G, Kastner B, Felsberg J, Steinbach JP, Wick A, Schnell O, Hau P, Herrlinger U, Sabel MC, Wirsching HG, Ketter R, Bahr O, Platten M, Tonn JC, Schlegel U, Marosi C, Goldbrunner R, Stupp R, Homicsko K, Pichler J, Nikkhah G, Meixensberger J, Vajkoczy P, Kollias S, Husing J, Reifenberger G, Wick W, Group DS (2015) MGMT promoter methylation is a strong prognostic biomarker for benefit from dose-intensified temozolomide rechallenge in progressive Glioblastoma: the DIRECTOR trial. Clin Cancer Res 21(9):2057–2064. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-2737

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weller M, Roth P, Preusser M, Wick W, Reardon DA, Platten M, Sampson JH (2017) Vaccine-based immunotherapeutic approaches to gliomas and beyond. Nat Rev Neurol 13(6):363–374. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2017.64

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wick W, Weller M, van den Bent M, Sanson M, Weiler M, von Deimling A, Plass C, Hegi M, Platten M, Reifenberger G (2014) MGMT testing--the challenges for biomarker-based glioma treatment. Nat Rev Neurol 10(7):372–385. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2014.100

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer K, Kratz CP (2010) Constitutional mismatch repair-deficiency syndrome. Haematologica 95(5):699–701. https://doi.org/10.3324/haematol.2009.021626

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer K, Rosenbaum T, Messiaen L (2017) Connections between constitutional mismatch repair deficiency syndrome and neurofibromatosis type 1. Clin Genet 91(4):507–519. https://doi.org/10.1111/cge.12904

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wisoff JH, Boyett JM, Berger MS, Brant C, Li H, Yates AJ, McGuire-Cullen P, Turski PA, Sutton LN, Allen JC, Packer RJ, Finlay JL (1998) Current neurosurgical management and the impact of the extent of resection in the treatment of malignant gliomas of childhood: a report of the Children’s Cancer Group trial no. CCG-945. J Neurosurg 89(1):52–59. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1998.89.1.0052

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff JE, Driever PH, Erdlenbruch B, Kortmann RD, Rutkowski S, Pietsch T, Parker C, Metz MW, Gnekow A, Kramm CM (2010) Intensive chemotherapy improves survival in pediatric high-grade glioma after gross total resection: results of the HIT-GBM-C protocol. Cancer 116(3):705–712. https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.24730

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodworth GF, Dunn GP, Nance EA, Hanes J, Brem H (2014) Emerging insights into barriers to effective brain tumor therapeutics. Front Oncol 4:126. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2014.00126

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wu G, Diaz AK, Paugh BS, Rankin SL, Ju B, Li Y, Zhu X, Qu C, Chen X, Zhang J, Easton J, Edmonson M, Ma X, Lu C, Nagahawatte P, Hedlund E, Rusch M, Pounds S, Lin T, Onar-Thomas A, Huether R, Kriwacki R, Parker M, Gupta P, Becksfort J, Wei L, Mulder HL, Boggs K, Vadodaria B, Yergeau D, Russell JC, Ochoa K, Fulton RS, Fulton LL, Jones C, Boop FA, Broniscer A, Wetmore C, Gajjar A, Ding L, Mardis ER, Wilson RK, Taylor MR, Downing JR, Ellison DW, Baker SJ (2014) The genomic landscape of diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma and pediatric non-brainstem high-grade glioma. Nat Genet 46(5):444–450. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.2938

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yang T, Temkin N, Barber J, Geyer JR, Leary S, Browd S, Ojemann JG, Ellenbogen RG (2013) Gross total resection correlates with long-term survival in pediatric patients with glioblastoma. World Neurosurg 79(3–4):537–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2012.09.015

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yung WK, Mechtler L, Gleason MJ (1991) Intravenous carboplatin for recurrent malignant glioma: a phase II study. J Clin Oncol 9(5):860–864

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang L, Chen LH, Wan H, Yang R, Wang Z, Feng J, Yang S, Jones S, Wang S, Zhou W, Zhu H, Killela PJ, Zhang J, Wu Z, Li G, Hao S, Wang Y, Webb JB, Friedman HS, Friedman AH, McLendon RE, He Y, Reitman ZJ, Bigner DD, Yan H (2014) Exome sequencing identifies somatic gain-of-function PPM1D mutations in brainstem gliomas. Nat Genet 46(7):726–730. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.2995

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang J, Walsh MF, Wu G, Edmonson MN, Gruber TA, Easton J, Hedges D, Ma X, Zhou X, Yergeau DA, Wilkinson MR, Vadodaria B, Chen X, McGee RB, Hines-Dowell S, Nuccio R, Quinn E, Shurtleff SA, Rusch M, Patel A, Becksfort JB, Wang S, Weaver MS, Ding L, Mardis ER, Wilson RK, Gajjar A, Ellison DW, Pappo AS, Pui CH, Nichols KE, Downing JR (2015) Germline mutations in predisposition genes in pediatric cancer. N Engl J Med 373(24):2336–2346. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1508054

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zinn PO, Colen RR, Kasper EM, Burkhardt JK (2013) Extent of resection and radiotherapy in GBM: a 1973 to 2007 surveillance, epidemiology and end results analysis of 21,783 patients. Int J Oncol 42(3):929–934. https://doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2013.1770

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zukotynski K, Fahey F, Kocak M, Kun L, Boyett J, Fouladi M, Vajapeyam S, Treves T, Poussaint TY (2014) 18F-FDG PET and MR imaging associations across a spectrum of pediatric brain tumors: a report from the pediatric brain tumor consortium. J Nucl Med 55(9):1473–1480. https://doi.org/10.2967/jnumed.114.139626

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA

    Matthias A. Karajannis & Michael F. Walsh

  2. Department of Pathology, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA

    Matija Snuderl

  3. Department of Radiation Oncology, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA

    Brian K. Yeh

  4. Department of Radiation Oncology, Mount Sinai Health System, New York, NY, USA

    Brian K. Yeh

  5. Department of Radiology, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA

    Rajan Jain

  6. Department of Neurosurgery, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA

    Rajan Jain, Nikhil A. Sahasrabudhe & Jeffrey H. Wisoff

Authors
  1. Matthias A. Karajannis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Matija Snuderl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Brian K. Yeh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael F. Walsh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Rajan Jain
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Nikhil A. Sahasrabudhe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Jeffrey H. Wisoff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Matthias A. Karajannis .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Oncology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA

    Amar Gajjar

  2. Children’s National Medical Center, George Washington University, Silver Spring, WA, USA

    Gregory H. Reaman

  3. Cincinnati, OH, USA

    Judy M. Racadio

  4. Medpace, Cincinnati, OH, USA

    Franklin O. Smith

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Karajannis, M.A. et al. (2018). High-Grade Glioma, Including Diffuse Intrinsic Pontine Glioma. In: Gajjar, A., Reaman, G., Racadio, J., Smith, F. (eds) Brain Tumors in Children. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43205-2_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43205-2_9

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-43203-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-43205-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation