Abstract
The chapter examines an episode in the history of nineteenth-century agricultural improvement, the attempt to change the climate of Russia’s southern steppe provinces by planting forests. The afforestation efforts carried out in the Velikii Anadol’ forestry district in the eastern Ukraine were closely interwoven with debates about the potential climatic impact of deforestation—debates that were waged across Europe from the eighteenth century onwards and that are often considered by historians as crucial for the emergence of modern environmental consciousness. This chapter focuses on the changing character of experiments and observations carried out in Velikii Anadol’, and analyzes the ways in which they reflect a broader transformation of evidentiary standards in the nineteenth-century life sciences. It also explores the ways in which different scientific agendas were applied in the Russian frontier as part of attempts at agricultural colonization.
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Notes
- 1.
Grove (1995).
- 2.
- 3.
Moon (2010, pp. 251–275).
- 4.
One of the major impediments for agricultural production in the steppe region is a dramatic fluctuation in the amount of rainfall from one year to the next. As a result, an average annual rainfall is a figure of a little practical importance in this region. For details, see, e.g., Kovda and Samoĭlova (1983), Mordkovich et al. (1997), and Moon (2013).
- 5.
For the history of academic debate on the absence of forests in the steppe zone of European Russia and the role of this debate for the making of plant geography and plant ecology in Russia, see Fedotova (2012).
- 6.
Russian State Historical Archive (Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Istoricheskii Arkhiv, hereafter—RGIA), f. 387 (Forestry Department) for the years 1843–1917. All further references to documents from Russian archives are given here in compliance with established academic practice: the name of the archive is followed by collection (fond or f.), inventory (opis’ or op.), file (delo or d.), and folio (list or l., ll. in plural form). See also Red’ko (1994). The book narrates the early history of the Velikii Anadol’ forestry district, from its establishment to the last years of Graff administration. It is based on an extensive range of archival documents; its author is a forestry specialist who spent many years researching the history of forestry in Russia. See also Filonenko (2000), Bark (1872), Polianskii (1888), and Tsvetkov (1957).
- 7.
Brain (2011).
- 8.
On peasant colonization of the steppe zone in the Russian empire, see, e.g., Sunderland (2004).
- 9.
- 10.
Moon (2010, p. 257).
- 11.
For details, see Loskutova (2012b).
- 12.
Bozherianov (1897).
- 13.
For details, see Loskutova (2012b).
- 14.
Köppen (1841).
- 15.
For details, see Mironov (2012, pp. 200–202).
- 16.
See, e.g., RGIA, f. 387 (Forestry Department), op. 1, d. 465, ll. 2–21 (“On the measures to promote afforestation in southern Russia,” a draft report of the MSD third department, December 27, 1840).
- 17.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 1, d. 10415, ll. 107–09 (Graff’s report, September 1, 1843); 143–51 (Graff’s report, October 25, 1843).
- 18.
- 19.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 1, d. 10415, ll. 147–51 (Graff’s report, October 25, 1843).
- 20.
For the period when Graff was the head of the forestry district (1843–1866), it acclimatized more than 30 tree species and 40 shrub species in the arboretum. A smaller number was used for afforestation, however. For this purpose, the personnel of the forestry district still used not only local species but also a few introduced species, including some American trees. The forestry district objectives were outlined in a number of sources, e.g., Bark (1873).
- 21.
Red’ko (1994).
- 22.
See, e.g., RGIA, f. 387, op. 1, d. 465, ll. 56–203 (“On measures to promote the afforestation of the southern Russia”, March 15, 1841, see esp. ll. 174–75).
- 23.
Andreassian (2004).
- 24.
Pasetskii (1984).
- 25.
For details, see Loskutova (2012a).
- 26.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 1, d. 10415, l. 224 (a letter from the head of Ekaterinoslav chamber of state domains to his superiors at the MSD in St. Petersburg, May 1, 1844).
- 27.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 2, d. 22244.
- 28.
Red’ko and Red’ko (2002).
- 29.
- 30.
- 31.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 3, d. 24744, l. 19.
- 32.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 3, dd. 24743–24745.
- 33.
For his biography, see Red’ko (1994).
- 34.
In 1866, he became the professor of forestry in Moscow Agricultural Academy.
- 35.
The Forestry Society in St. Petersburg was established just before these events. It was very active in arranging the forestry section of the exhibition: see [1871–1878] “Izvestiia o deiatel’nosti Lesnogo obshchestva,” 1871. The 1872 exhibition was an important public event; its exhibits formed the basis for the Polytechnic and Historical Museums in Moscow. See [1872] Obshchee obozrenie; [1922] Piatidesiatiletie Politekhnicheskogo muzeia v Moskve. For the history of the Forestry Society, see Beilin (1962).
- 36.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 3, d. 24744, l. 334–343.
- 37.
- 38.
Bark (1880).
- 39.
- 40.
On “cultivation experiments” and the need to start full-scale scientific experiments, see, e.g., Izmail’skii (1893).
- 41.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 3, no. 24744, ll. 228–245, 246, 334–343, 351–365.
- 42.
- 43.
- 44.
Bark (1872).
- 45.
Bark (1872, p. 86).
- 46.
- 47.
Hölzl (2010, pp. 431–460, esp. 452–453).
- 48.
The results obtained by Ebermayer suggested that forests increased the humidity of air and soil, thus giving evidential support to earlier assumptions. Later on, this assumption was proven to be wrong: Ebermayer’s experiments were focused on comparing relative humidity of air under forest canopy and in an open space, but they did not take into account the amount of water evaporated by plants.
- 49.
- 50.
- 51.
Morozov (1875); St. Petersburg Branch of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences (SPF ARAN), f. 724, op. 1, d. 80 (K. Gernet , “On the Establishment of Entomological Stations in Russia,” 1873).
- 52.
Benson (2009, pp. 76–89, esp. 84–86).
- 53.
[1871–78] “Izvestiia o deiatel’nosti Lesnogo obshchestva” 1875 no. 1: 112–144; 1876 no. 1: 99–100. A few foresters, university, and agronomical schools’ faculty members volunteered to carry out observations.
- 54.
[1871–1878] “Izvestiia o deiatel’nosti Lesnogo obshchestva” 1878 no. 2.
- 55.
Turskii and Shafranov (1876, p. 121 fn).
- 56.
Poletaev (1878).
- 57.
Analytical balances were needed for establishing soil weight in its normal and in an absolutely dry state. This method was a standard way of measuring soil moisture.
- 58.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 3, d. 24745, l. 319.
- 59.
For a very general overview of the making of this discipline in Russia and the role of Dokuchaev, see Evtuhov (2006).
- 60.
Izmail’skii (1894).
- 61.
See correspondence between Dokuchaev and Izmail’skii in Dokuchaev (1961).
- 62.
Izmail’skii (1894, p. 90).
- 63.
- 64.
See Krasnov (1892).
- 65.
On him, see Krupenikov (1987).
- 66.
- 67.
Kostychev (1876).
- 68.
Kostychev (1886).
- 69.
RGIA, f. 387, op. 5, d. 31378.
- 70.
Later, soil scientists came to a conclusion that the principal difference between forest and steppe soils was in the type of litter. In steppe soils, litter consists for the most part of rapidly degradable roots of herbaceous plants. In forest soils, litter is formed by those parts of plants that grow above the earth’s surface.
- 71.
Khramov (1893) published his results in “O vlazhnosti pochvy v Veliko-Anadol’skom lesnichestve.” His aim was to find out if soils were always more humid under any vegetation cover. He concluded from his observations that forest soils retained more snow in winter and water in spring, yet they evaporated more in summer, as compared to tilled fields.
- 72.
Sibirtsev and Dokuchaev (1893).
- 73.
[1894–1898] Trudy Osoboi ekspeditsii. This became the precursor for the first specialist journal in experimental forestry, Trudy po opytnomu lesnomu delu.
- 74.
- 75.
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We would like to thank Mark Finlay, Kari Korhonen, Grigorii Isachenko, David Moon, and the editors of this volume, Sharon Kingsland and Denise Phillips, for their very helpful comments and suggestions.
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Fedotova, A., Loskutova, M. (2015). Forests, Climate, and the Rise of Scientific Forestry in Russia: From Local Knowledge and Natural History to Modern Experiments (1840s–early 1890s). In: Phillips, D., Kingsland, S. (eds) New Perspectives on the History of Life Sciences and Agriculture. Archimedes, vol 40. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12185-7_7
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