Abstract
The chapter deals with the geotechnical classification of weak and complex rock masses. The term “weak rock mass” instead of “soft rock” is generally used in this chapter to highlight better the nature of the examined geomaterial. The weak rock masses that are examined in this study are generated by tectonical compression or weathering either the parent rock is initially soft or not. Cases, where the decreasing of the quality is expressed on the rock mass scale and not necessarily on the primary low intact rock strength is thus presented.
Use of the GSI rock mass classification system and the associated m, s and a parameter relationships linking GSI with the Hoek–Brown failure criterion provides a proven, effective and reliable approach for prediction of rock mass strength for surface and underground excavation design and for rock support selection. The need for geological definition of rock mass properties required as inputs into numerical analysis, allowing for characterisation of even the most problematic of weak and complex rock masses. Back-analyses of tunnels, slopes and foundation behaviour using the approach attest to its reliability. New or revised GSI charts for weak and complex rock masses are presented in this chapter. Specific key engineering geological characteristics that differentiate various igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock units one from each other and generates weak (soft) forms are presented.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Afrouz AA (1992) Practical handbook of rock mass classification systems and modes of ground failure. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 195
Anon (1995) The description and classification of weathered rocks for engineering purposes. Geological society engineering. Group working party report. Quart J Eng Geol 28:207–242
Barton NR, Lien R, Lunde J (1974) Engineering classification of rock masses for the design of tunnel support. Rock Mech 6(4):189–239
Bieniawski ZT (1973) Engineering classification of jointed rock masses. Trans South Afr Inst Civ Eng 15:335–344
Bieniawski ZT (1974) Geomechanics classification of rock masses and its application in tunnelling. Proc.3rd Int. Congr. On Rock Mechanics, Vol. IIA, Int. Soc. Rock Mech., Denver, pp. 27–32
Bieniawski ZT (1976) Rock mass classification in rock engineering. In: Bieniawski ZT (ed) Exploration for rock engineering. A.A. Balkema, Johannesburg, pp 97–106
Brown ET (1981) Rock characterization, testing and monitoring—ISRM suggested methods. Pergamon, Oxford, pp 171–183
Carter T, Marinos V (2014) Use of GSI for rock engineering design. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Applied Empirical Design Methods in Mining, Lima
Castro LAM, Carvalho J, Sá G (2013) Discussion on how to classify and estimate strength of weak rock masses. In: Dight PM (ed) Slope stability 2013. Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth
Caterpillar (1996) Handbook of ripping, 10th edn. Caterpillar, Inc., Peoria, p 9
Chaney RC, Demars KR, Santi PM, Higgins JD (1998) Methods for predicting shale durability in the field. Geotech Test J 21(3):195
Chapman DR, Wood LE, Lovell CW, Sisiliano WJ (1976) A comparative study of shale classification tests and systems: Technical paper. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Dearman WR (1976) Weathering classification in the characterization of rock: a revision. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol 13:373–381
Fortsakis P, Nikas K, Marinos V, Marinos P (2012) Anisotropic behaviour of stratified rockmasses in tunnelling. Eng Geol 141–142(19):74–83
Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party (1995) The description and classification of weathered rock for engineering purposes. Quart J Eng Geol 28(3):207–242
Gokceoglu C, Ulusay R, Sonmez H (2000) Factors affecting the durability of selected weak and clay-bearing rocks from Turkey, with particular emphasis on the influence of the number of drying and wetting cycles. Eng Geol 57(2000):215–237
Hathaway A (1990) Weak Rock poorly lithified cockroaches and snakes. AEG News 33(3)
Hoek E (1994) Strength of rock and rock masses. News J Int Soc Rock Mech 2(2):4–16
Hoek E, Brown ET (1980) Empirical strength criterion for rock masses. J Geotech Eng Div ASCE v. 106, n. GT9, p. 1013–1035
Hoek E, Brown ET (1997) Practical estimates of rock mass strength. Int Jour Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abst 34:1165–1186
Hoek E, Brown ET (2018) The Hoek-Brown failure criterion and GSI – 2018 edition, J Rock Mech Geotech Eng, pp 22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2018.08.001
Hoek E, Marinos P (2000) Predicting tunnel squeezing in weak heterogeneous masses. Tunn Tunn Int 1. November Issue, pp 45–51; Part 2, December Issue, pp 34–36
Hoek E, Marinos P (2007) A brief history of the development of the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. Soil Rock 30(2):85–92
Hoek E, Kaiser PK, Bawden WF (1995) Support of under-ground excavations in hard rock. Balkema, Rotterdam
Hoek E, Marinos P, Benissi M (1998) Applicability of the Geological Strength Index (GSI) classification for weak and sheared rock masses – the case of the Athens Schist formation. Bull Eng Geol Env 57(2):151–160
Hoek E, Caranza-Torres CT, Corcum B (2002) Hoek-Brown failure criterion - 2002 edition. In: Bawden HRW, Curran J, Telsenicki M (eds) Proc. North American Rock Mechanics Society (NARMS-TAC 2002). Mining Innovation and Technology, Toronto, pp 267–273
Hoek E, Marinos P, Marinos V (2005) Characterization and engineering properties of tectonically undisturbed but lithologically varied sedimentary rock masses. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 42(2):277–285
International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) (1981) Commission on classification of rocks and rock masses. Int J Rock Mech Min Abst 18:85–110
International Society for Rock Mechanics ISRM (1985) Suggested method for determining point load strength. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abst 22:51–62
Kanji MA (2014) Critical issues in soft rocks. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 6(3):186–195
Krank KD, Watters RJ (1983) Geotechnical properties of weathered sierra nevada granodiorite. Environ Eng Geosci XX(2):173–184
Lauffer H (1958) Gebirgsklassifizierung für den Stollenbau [Mountain classification for the gallery construction]. Geology Bauwesen (in German). 74(1):46–51.
Lee SG, De Freitas MH (1989) A revision of the description and classification of weathered granite and its application to granites in Korea. Quart J Eng Geol 22(1):31–48
Marinos P (1993) General report session 1: hard soils-soft rocks: geological features with emphasis to soft rocks. In: Anagnostopoulos A et al (eds) Geotechnical engineering of hard soils-soft rocks. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 1807–1818. ISBN 9054103442
Marinos V (2007) Geotechnical classification and engineering geological behaviour of weak and complex rock masses in tunneling. Doctoral thesis, School of Civil Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering Department, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Athens (In greek)
Marinos V (2012) Assessing rock mass behaviour for tunnelling. Environ Eng Geosci 18(4):327–341
Marinos V (2014) Tunnel behaviour and support associated with the weak rock masses of flysch. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 6:227–239
Marinos PV (2019) A revised, geotechnical classification GSI system for tectonically disturbed heterogeneous rock masses, such as flysch. Bull Eng Geol Environ 78:899. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-017-1151-zBOEG-D-17-00268.1
Marinos V, Carter T (2018) Maintaining geological reality in application of GSI for design of engineering structures in rock. Eng Geol 239:282–297
Marinos V, Drosos G (2010) Τunnelling through gneiss. A competent or a problematic rock mass? Proccedings of the 11th International congress of IAEG (in CD), Auckland
Marinos P, Hoek E (2000) GSI: a geologically friendly tool for rock mass strength estimation. Proc. GeoEng2000 at the Int. Conf. on Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Melbourne, Technomic publishers, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, pp 1422–1446
Marinos P, Hoek E (2001) Estimating the geotechnical properties of heterogeneous rock masses such as flysch. Bull Eng Geol Env 60:82–92
Marinos V, Marinos P, Hoek E (2005a) The geological strength index – applications and limitations. Bull Eng Geol Environ 64(1):55–65
Marinos P, Hoek E, Marinos V (2005b) Variability of the engineering properties of rock masses quantified by the geological strength index: the case of ophiolites with special emphasis on tunnelling. Bull Eng Geol Environ 65(2):129–142
Marinos V, Fortsakis P, Prountzopoulos G (2006) Estimation of rock mass properties of heavily sheared flysch using data from tunnelling construction. Proceedings of the 10th International congress of IAEG in Nottingham, paper number 314, in CD
Marinos V, Fortsakis P, Prountzopoulos G (2011) Estimation of geotechnical properties and classification of geotechnical behaviour in tunnelling for flysch rock masses. In: Anagnostopoulos A et al (eds) Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Part 1, Athens, pp 435–440
Marinos V, Fortsakis P, Prountzopoulos G (2013a) Tunnel behaviour and support in molassic rocks. The experiences from 12 tunnels in Greece. In: Kwasniewski M, Lydzba D (eds) Rock mechanics for resources, energy and environment (EUROCK2013). CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 909–914
Marinos V, Prountzopoulos G, Fortsakis P, Korkaris K, Koumoutsakos D, Papouli D (2013b) Tunnel information and analysis system: a geotechnical database for tunnels. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 31:891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-012-9570-x
Marinos V, Fortsakis P, Stoumpos G (2015) Classification of weak and complex rock masses according to the engineering project type. In: Lollino G et al (eds) Engineering geology for society and territory, vol 6. Springer, Cham, pp 859–863
Nickman M, Spaun G, Thuro K (2006) Engineering geological classification of weak rocks. Proceedings of the 10th International congress of IAEG in Nottingham, paper number 492, in CD
Oliveira R (1993) Weak rock materials. Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of the Engineering Group of the Geological Society, Leeds, UK, September 1990
Palicki KS (1997) A graphical method for the classification of rock and weak rock masses based on field observations. Eng Environ Geosci 3(1):7–12
Santi PM (1995) Classification and testing of weak and weathered rock materials: a model based on Colorado Shales. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, 286 p
Santi PM (1997) Comparison of weak and weathered rock classification systems. In: Santi PM, Shakoor A (eds) Characterization of weak and weathered rock masses. Association of Engineering Geologists Special Publication #9. Association of Engineering Geologists, Denver, pp 139–160
Santi PM (2006) Field methods for characterizing weak rock for engineering. Environ Eng Geosci XII(1):1–11
Santi PM, Doyle BC (1997) The locations and engineering characteristics of weak rock in the U.S. In: Santi PM, Shakoor A (eds) Characterization of weak and weathered rock masses. Association of Engineering Geologists Special Publication #9. Association of Engineering Geologists, Sudbury, MA, pp 1–22
Santi PM, Shakoor A (eds) (1997) Characterization of weak and weathered rock masses, association of engineering geologists special publication #9: Association of engineering geologists, Sudbury, MA, 233 p
Smith HJ (1997) The point load test for weak rock in dredging applications. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 34(295):3–4
Stacey TR, Page CH (1986) Practical handbook for underground rock mechanics. Trans Tech. Publications, Clausthal-Zellerfeld
Terzaghi K (1946) Rock defects and load on tunnel supports. In: Proctor RV, White TL (eds) Introduction to rock tunnelling with steel supports. Commercial Shearing & Stamping Co., Youngtown
Tsiambaos G, Sabatakakis N (2004) Considerations on strength of intact sedimentary rocks. Eng Geol 72:261–273
Wakabayashi J, Medley EW (2004) Geological characterization of mélanges for practitioners. Felsbau 22(5):10–43
White RM, Richardson TL (1987) Predicting the difficulty and cost of excavation in the Piedmont. In: Smith RE (ed) Foundations and excavations in decomposed rock of the piedmont province: ASCE geotechnical special publication No. 9: ASCE, New York, pp. 15–36
Wickham GE, Tiedeman HR, Skinner EH (1979) Ground support prediction model-RSR Concept. Proceedings, Rapid Excavation and Tunneling Conference, AIME, New York, pp 691–707
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Evert Hoek and Paul Marinos for their insight in initially developing the GSI approach. The author would also like to thank Egnatia Odos S.A. for its support and the data provided.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Vassilis, M. (2020). Applications of the GSI System to the Classification of Soft Rocks. In: Kanji, M., He, M., Ribeiro e Sousa, L. (eds) Soft Rock Mechanics and Engineering . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29477-9_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29477-9_19
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-29476-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-29477-9
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)