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Germ Layers and the Germ-Layer Theory Revisited

Primary and Secondary Germ Layers, Neural Crest as a Fourth Germ Layer, Homology, and Demise of the Germ-Layer Theory

  • Chapter
Evolutionary Biology

Part of the book series: Evolutionary Biology ((EBIO,volume 30))

Abstract

Remak’s legacy remains. “Ectoderm forms the outside, endoderm forms the inside, and mesoderm forms what’s in between” is the shorthand caricature of germ layers so often given to undergraduates. These are old ideas. We have known that embryos of animals such as the chick are built from three germ layers for 180 years, and that all vertebrates are built on a three-layered plan for 169 years. Huxley announced 148 years ago that two of the germ layers in vertebrate embryos’ectoderm and endoderm’are homologous to the two layers of adult coelenterates. Phyla have been classified as mono-, diplo-, or triploblastic, i.e., as having one, two, or three germ layers, for 124 years. Just as old is the germ-layer theory that homologous structures in different animals (must) arise from corresponding germ layers. Germ layers are part of the foundation of our understanding of animal organization.

In 1855, Robert Remak (1815–1865) refined the concept and renamed the three germ layers: ectoderm, or “outside skin,” gives rise to skin and nervous system; mesoderm, or “middle skin,” produces muscles, skeleton, and the excretory system; endoderm, or “inside skin,” differentiates to form notochord, digestive system, and associated glands. Thus, each germ layer had a “specific histological future. “ This simplistic germ layer rule is often the only vestige that reluctant students carry with them from introductory embryology. But contradictions to the basic rules have often been found.

Magner (1979), p. 203.

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  1. Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4J1, Canada

    Brian K. Hall

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  1. Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, New York, USA

    Max K. Hecht

  2. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA

    Ross J. Macintyre

  3. University of California, Riverside, Riverside, California, USA

    Michael T. Clegg

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Hall, B.K. (1998). Germ Layers and the Germ-Layer Theory Revisited. In: Hecht, M.K., Macintyre, R.J., Clegg, M.T. (eds) Evolutionary Biology. Evolutionary Biology, vol 30. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1751-5_5

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