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Tribology in Metal Forming

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Tribology for Scientists and Engineers

Abstract

The ability to produce a variety of shapes from a block of metal at high rates of production has been one of the real technological advances of the current century. This transition from hand-forming operations to mass-production methods has been an important factor in the great improvement in the standard of living, which occurred during the period. With these forming processes, it is possible to mechanically deform metal into a final shape with minimal material removal. The use of metal forming processes is widely spread over many different industries. In metal forming processes, friction forces between metal and forming tools play an important role because of their influence on the process performance and on the final product properties. In many instances, this frictional behavior is often taken into account by using a constant coefficient of friction in the simulation of metal forming processes. Several different types of instruments are constructed to measure the coefficient of friction for different materials. In this chapter, the fundamental concept of forming processes and the influence of friction in metal forming are discussed. A case study on the influence of friction based on surface texture during metal forming is also presented.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA

    Pradeep L. Menezes & Michael R. Lovell

  2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA

    Carlton J. Reeves

  3. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560 012, India

    Satish V. Kailas

Authors
  1. Pradeep L. Menezes
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  2. Carlton J. Reeves
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  3. Satish V. Kailas
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  4. Michael R. Lovell
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pradeep L. Menezes .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA

    Pradeep L. Menezes

  2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA

    Michael Nosonovsky

  3. Department of Marine Engineering, Texas A&M University, Galveston, Texas, USA

    Sudeep P. Ingole

  4. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

    Satish V. Kailas

  5. Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA

    Michael R. Lovell

Questions

Questions

  1. 1.

    What are the three manufacturing processes?

  2. 2.

    Explain direct-compression-type processes and indirect-compression-type processes.

  3. 3.

    Describe tension-type processes, bending processes, and shearing processes.

  4. 4.

    Describe the rolling process.

  5. 5.

    Describe the forging process. Explain two types of forging.

  6. 6.

    Describe the extrusion processes. List four types of extrusion techniques.

  7. 7.

    Describe the drawing process.

  8. 8.

    Explain how surface texture affects friction and the relevance this has on metal forming processes.

  9. 9.

    How does surface texturing influence metal forming and affect the microstructure of the die workpiece?

  10. 10.

    What are primary and secondary metal forming processes?

  11. 11.

    What are hot-working and cold-working processes?

Answers

  1. 1.

    The three manufacturing processes are casting, forming, and machining. Casting is the process where molten liquid is poured into a mold that holds the required shape, and allowing hardens the metal with or without external pressure. This process occurs in the liquid state. Forming is a process where the volume and mass of metal are preserved and the metal is displaced from one location to another location by applying pressure. This process occurs in the solid state. Machining is the process where material is removed in order to give it the required shape. This process also occurs in the solid state.

  2. 2.

    A direct-compression-type process is one in which the force is applied to the surface of the workpiece and the metal flows at right angles to the direction of the compression. An indirect-compression-type process is one in which the primary applied forces are frequently tensile, but indirect compressive forces are developed by the reaction of the workpiece with the die. Therefore, the metal flows under the action of a combined stress state, which includes high compressive forces in at least one of the principal directions.

  3. 3.

    A tension-type forming process is stretch forming, where a metal sheet is wrapped to the contour of a die under the application of tensile forces. A bending process involves the application of bending moments to the sheet. A shearing involves the application of shearing forces of sufficient magnitude to rupture the metal in the plane of shear.

  4. 4.

    Rolling is the process where a sheet or plate is drawn by means of friction in between two rollers. The compressive forces applied by the rollers reduce the thickness of the material while minimizing the cross-sectional area and causing the rolled material to elongate and spread.

  5. 5.

    Forging is the process of hammering or pressing material between two dies to achieve the desired shape and structure through plastic deformation. Two types of forging are open-die forging and closed-die forging. Open-die forging is the process where metal is compressed by hammering or pressing between flat or contoured dies either mechanically or manually and the shape of the material is deformed through plastic deformation. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies (the surfaces that are in contact with the workpiece) do not enclose the workpiece, allowing the metal to flow except where contacted by the dies. Closed-die forging is the process where the metal is compressed between a shaped die and a hammer that presses the metal deforming it within the die causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities.

  6. 6.

    Extrusion is the process where a material is compressed in a chamber and the deformed material is forced to flow through a die. The die opening corresponds to the cross section of the required product. Extrusion is primarily a hot-working process; however, for softer materials, cold extrusion is also performed. There are a few types of extrusion processes that are used extensively in industry: direct extrusion, indirect extrusion, impact extrusion, and hydrostatic extrusion.

  7. 7.

    Drawing is a cold metalworking process that uses tensile forces to stretch metal into long rods, wires, and tubes. In this process, a material is pulled through a die to reduce it to a desired shape and size. In a typical wire drawing operation, one end of the wire is reduced and passed through the opening of the die, pulling with it the metal to reduce its diameter. By successive drawing operations through dies of reducing diameter, a rod can be reduced to a very small diameter.

  8. 8.

    The coefficient of friction depends on surface textures. Research shows that the coefficient of friction was highest when sliding perpendicular to the unidirectional grinding marks and lowest when tests were conducted on the random surfaces under both dry and lubricated conditions. In the test conducted for 8-ground and U-PL (sliding parallel to the unidirectional grinding marks) surface textures, the coefficient of friction values were in between these two extremes. The results obtained provide a basis for controlling the coefficient of friction across various locations along the interface between die and workpiece in metal forming process. These results may be employed to obtain a particular die surface finish in a particular area of the tool so as to obtain the desired coefficient of friction. By controlling the surface texture of the die, the friction at the interface and final shape can be controlled. This would affect the stresses and strain rates of the workpiece.

  9. 9.

    The surface texturing technology can be utilized in metal forming process to design a particular texture at different locations of the die so that the coefficient of friction could be varied according to the requirement. In locations where the coefficient of friction needs to be high, a unidirectionally ground surface with the flow perpendicular to the grinding marks can be machined, and in locations where the coefficient of friction needs to be low, a randomly ground surface can be machined. Designing textures on the die may also enable the reduction of conventional lubricants that are needed to achieve the required friction. The die–workpiece friction affects material flow, stresses, and strain rate distribution in the deformed material, which in turn influences the microstructural evolution in the material. The microstructure evolution will affect the mechanical properties of the formed product. The mechanical properties of the formed product at different locations depending on the requirements can also be tailored by designing proper surface texture.

  10. 10.

    The plastic working processes, which are designed to reduce an ingot or billet to a standard mill product of simple shape, such as sheet, plate, and bar, are known as primary mechanical working processes. Forming methods, which produce a part of a final finished shape, are called secondary mechanical working processes. Most sheet metal forming operations, wire drawing, and tube drawing are secondary processes.

  11. 11.

    Hot-working is defined as the process of deformation of the workpiece under conditions of high temperature and strain rate such that the recovery process takes place along with the deformation of the workpiece. Cold-working is defined as the process of deformation under conditions where the recovery process is ineffective.

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Menezes, P.L., Reeves, C.J., Kailas, S.V., Lovell, M.R. (2013). Tribology in Metal Forming. In: Menezes, P., Nosonovsky, M., Ingole, S., Kailas, S., Lovell, M. (eds) Tribology for Scientists and Engineers. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1945-7_24

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