Abstract
This study tests the idea that indigenous hunters employ selective prey and patch choice to augment the sustainability of their long-term foraging returns. In other words, do Achuar (Shiwiar) hunting patterns maintain the group’s “harmony” or “balance with nature” behaving as conservationists, or do they act as resource maximizers acting in ways predicted by optimal foraging theory? Analysis of indigenous hunters’ prey choice in light of patch selection and optimal diet breadth models indicate that the Achuar (with few exceptions) are overharvesting local populations of various species of Neotropical wildlife. Significantly, this research documents differential species vulnerability to indigenous hunting pressure which, in turn, affects the sustainability of Amazonian wildlife harvests. Additionally, this research illustrates how a relatively isolated egalitarian and autonomous Amerindian group of subsistence hunter–horticulturalists, who maintain many of the traditional beliefs about wildlife population dynamics, are fully capable of overhunting several species of Neotropical wildlife. As such, the overharvesting of various types of wild game by the Achuar cannot be considered as being an artifact of Western contact. Lastly, this work examines some of the ethical issues raised by these findings.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Nelson (1983) and Stoffle (2005) also argue that traditional religious beliefs prevented native peoples from overharvesting natural resources. While rejecting the notion that Amerindians existed in equilibrium with the environment, Pierrotti believes that “…Indigenous peoples developed rituals and ceremonies specifically designed to minimize chances of resource collapse,…” (2010:162).
- 2.
However, anthropologists have documented the existence of common-pool resources that are managed effectively via common property regimes (Borgerhoff and Coppolillo 2005; Smith and Wishnie 2000). Understanding such strategies may shed light on the long-term sustainable faunal harvests practiced by certain Northwest Coast peoples as documented by Campbell and Butler (2010) along with Langdon (2007).
- 3.
However, evolutionary ecology does not rule out the possibility of conservation (Smith and Wishnie 2000). See also Winterhalder and Lu (1997) for a foraging simulation model that results in sustainable harvests when foragers switch to less desirable “fall back” foods. Additionally, through computer simulation of human behavior, Winterhalder et al. (1988) document how foragers and their resources reach equilibrium without adhering to conservationist practices.
- 4.
According to ecological-evolutionary theory, territories tend to develop in regions where resources are dense and predictable (Brown 1964; Davies and Hudson 1984). Hames (1991) adds that only areas in which resources are relatively dense and predictable are worth defending (territoriality), as the costs of excluding access to others are outweighed by the benefits of maintaining sole rights of harvesting. This is significant as de Thoisy et al. (2009:406) assert that “…a renewed focus on the demarcation of indigenous territories, and subsequent enforcement of territorial rights, can provide adequate incentives for long-term resource management, particularly if successful partnerships can be implemented with conservation organizations.”
- 5.
Likewise, Vickers states that “[p]eople are more apt to conserve their resources when they perceive that the resources are threatened” (1994:310).
- 6.
See also LeBlanc and Register (2003).
- 7.
Among contemporary Maya, restraint in hunting is promoted by the belief in a supernatural guardian of wildlife who punishes hunters who waste meat or who harvest more game than what is necessary (Chap. 6).
- 8.
For example, among the Tikopia, chiefs ensure sustainable harvests by monitoring the utilization of natural resources (Diamond 2005; Firth 1983; Kirch 1997). However, the presence of political complexity does not guarantee sustainability. One need only consider the environmental degradation caused by the chiefdom societies of Hawaii and Easter Island (Diamond 2005; Kirch 1997).
- 9.
However, see Lu (2001) for an example of a common property regime among the Waorani that may have fostered epiphenomenal conservation. Hill and Padwe (2000) report on Aché foragers who harvest a very small and sustainable proportion of wild game because of local source-sink conditions. Also, Vickers (1994) reports sustainable game harvests among the Siona-Secoya, but this most likely is an example of epiphenomenal conservation. See Smith and Wishnie (2000) for further discussion on sustainable harvests in small-scale societies.
- 10.
See Erickson (2006) for evidence indicating sustainable ecological practices among pre-contact Amazonian chiefdom-like societies.
- 11.
Research indicates that some individuals may employ harvesting strategies that do not maximize energetic return rates. The explanation for this seemingly “irrational economic” behavior is that it serves as an honest costly signal of fitness-related qualities (Bliege et al. 2001). Some types of inefficient hunting may persist because foragers gain benefits from widely disseminating information on their hunting prowess relative to competitors through the hunting of large and risky prey items (Hawkes 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993).
- 12.
Kayapo hunters also largely target large-bodied species over small-bodied species (de Thoisy et al. 2009).
- 13.
This also assumes that foragers operate in a homogeneous environment.
- 14.
See Sirén et al. (2004) for an example of the effects of central place forgaing on local faunal populations.
- 15.
See Redford (1991) for the original use of the “ecological noble savage” term.
- 16.
The hunting data collected by Vickers from 1973 to 1982 suggest that the Siona-Secoya along the Aguarico River were hunting most prey in a sustainable manner. However, there was clear-cut evidence of depletion for one species, Salvin’s Curassow (Vickers 1994).“The observed sustainability of Siona-Secoya hunting resulted from their low population density (0.2 persons per square kilometer), the availability of a large hunting territory, and their limited hunting technology” (Vickers 1994:321). Moreover, the village (San Pablo) from which the data were collected never exceed 250 people (Vickers 1994). Thus it appears, as is suggested by Vickers, that the Siona-Secoya’s mostly sustainable harvest is an example of epiphenomal conservation.
- 17.
“As a rule, larger animals tend to have lower reproductive rates and lower population densities than smaller animals. Hence many larger animals tend to be more susceptible to depletion by predators” (Vickers 1994:318).
- 18.
This community was established in its present location in the early 1980s.
- 19.
The Achuar of Alto Corrientes neither engage in cash cropping, nor are they involved in the bush meat trade. As such, everything they hunt, fish, or farm is for internal consumption exclusively.
- 20.
However, the Achuar of Alto Corrientes will deviate from a central place foraging pattern in preparation for village feasts that occur about one or twice a year. See below for more information on these occurrences.
- 21.
These data were obtained using a Magellan 2000 GPS instrument.
- 22.
See Chacon (2007) for a discussion of the conflict between the Alto Corrientes and the Conambo.
- 23.
Piranha teeth are used for notching blowgun darts so that the poisoned tips will readily break off once inside the bodies of wounded animals.
- 24.
During the course of this study, the exchange rate averaged 3,173 Sucres per $1 US dollar.
- 25.
See Chacon (2001) for a detailed comparison of Achuar blowgun vs. shotgun hunting harvests.
- 26.
All hunters were males who were 16 years of age or older.
- 27.
The Achuar find deer fetus particularly tasteful.
- 28.
Informants reported that these hunting camps were also used as refuges in times of war. Hence, the Achuar tend to be secretive about the exact locations of these clearings. See Beckerman and Yost (2007) for similarly “hidden gardens” among the Waorani.
- 29.
These distances were ascertained by using a Magellan 2000 GPS instrument.
- 30.
It is important to note that round trip travel time that men spent walking from the village of Alto Corrientes to the hunting camps was not included in the hunting patch/area kg/hr return rates reported in this study.
- 31.
Prey items taken at hunting camps are smoked over a fire for preservation.
- 32.
See Chacon (2001) for an overview of the “Energy Maximization” vs. “Time Minimization” debate.
- 33.
As previously stated, the categorization of game in this study was assigned on the basis of pre-processed weight.
- 34.
Stearman reports how among the Yuquí, female game animals with young “are often specifically targeted because they tend to trail behind, or in the case of primates, are slowed down by the infants they carry. Fetuses removed from slower pregnant females killed in the hunt are considered a delicacy” (1994:348). Additionally, the Kekchi Maya readily kill and eat pregnant paca (Kitty Emery personal communication 2010). Moreover, according to Hames, “Yanomamö hunters react with indifference to the discovery that a peccary or deer being butchered was pregnant” (Raymond Hames, personal communication 2011).
- 35.
In addition to interviewing numerous indigenous foragers, I have logged thousands of hours hunting with native Amazonians and they have never indicated that reproductive status was a determining factor in their decisions about which animals to pursue. Thus, the Achuar appear to harvest wild game opportunistically. Among the subsistence hunting Waimiri Atroari, female spider monkeys make up 80% of the catch for this species. Females are preferred over males because their bodies contain more fat. Female spider monkeys can be easily identified from the ground because of their conspicuous red genitalia (Souza-Mazurek et al. 2000). Interestingly, opportunistic Matsigenka bow hunters harvest more female primates than males because slower-moving females make easier targets than faster moving males (de Thoisy et al. 2009).
- 36.
Likewise, Wadley et al. (1997) found little evidence for conservation among the Iban of Borneo as hunters opportunistically harvested animals such as pregnant female wild pigs. Boigu Island subsistence hunters of the Torres Strait preferentially target female dugong (Dugong dugong) for harvesting (Raven 1990).
- 37.
- 38.
Similar trends among the Yuquí of Bolivia have been documented by Stearman (1992). This Amazonian group (which is living in an area that is becoming depleted) is now harvesting greater numbers of individuals of smaller-bodied (less preferred) species. These findings are in concert with predictions made by the OFT optimal diet breadth model.
- 39.
See Hames and Vickers (1982) for similar findings.
- 40.
Interestingly, a decline in highly high-ranked and highly desired dugongs (Dugong dugong) caused many Torres Strait Boigu Island subsistence hunters to focus on harvesting low-ranked and less desired green turtles (Chelonia mydas) (Raven 1990).
- 41.
A decline in high-ranked dugongs caused certain Boigu Island subsistence hunters to intensify their attempts to bag this highly prized species (Raven 1990).
- 42.
Several scholars have put forth low abundance of game as a major factor in the relocation of villages (Gross 1975; Harris 1974; Meggers 1971; Roosevelt 1980; Siskind 1973). Some may argue that relocation is an adaptation designed to maintain a group’s balance with nature (i.e., prevent the depletion of local fauna), but predictions stemming OFT’s patch switching model offer a more parsimonious explanation for why hunters choose to relocate when faced with low abundance of game.
- 43.
Similarly, Peres and Nascimiento (2005) report that tapirs are extremely rare in the vicinty of the Kayapo village of A’Ukre. Additionally, Franzen (2006) documents the overharvesting of spider monkeys by Huaorani subsistence hunters. Likewise, tapir and spider monkeys are becoming scarce in areas near Waimiri Atroari villages of the Brazilian Amazon (Souza-Mazurek et al. 2000).
- 44.
Traditionally, both tapir and red brocket deer were considered taboo by the Achuar (Ross 1976, 1978). However, during the course of this study, both species were eagerly pursued by Alto Corrientes hunters whenever encountered in the forest. Moreover, one pregnant red brocket deer was taken and consumed by the villagers (fetus included). Therefore, the absence of tapir and the relative scarcity of red brocket deer in the harvest recorded in this study likely stem from the overhunting of these species, rather than from any reticence on the part of Achuar foragers to bag these particular prey types. See Hames and Vickers (1982) for a similar “de-tabooing of deer.” The absence of white-lipped peccaries in the Achuar harvest may also be the result of overhunting. However, it is important to note that white-lipped peccaries have been known to move out of an area for years, and then return in great numbers (Bodmer 1990; March 1993; Mayer and Brandt 1982; Sowls 1984).
- 45.
In this study, I classified agoutis at the lower end of the larger-bodied prey category.
- 46.
For another example of Neotropical wildlife being attracted to Amerindian settlements, see Demarest (2004) and Emery (2000, 2004, 2007) who report the existence of a human–deer symbiotic relationship among the ancient Maya. Fallow zones and patches of jungle were maintained even in the proximity of densely populated Maya regions to support a nearby wild deer population for hunting and trapping. Research indicates that deer were attracted to gardens in order to feed on corn.
- 47.
- 48.
Among the Yuqui, the number of agoutis harvested increased as larger prey types became depleted (Stearman 1990, 1992). The Siona-Secoya generally prefer harvesting larger-bodied game animals such as tapirs, peccaries, woolly monkeys, and howler monkeys over relatively smaller-bodied species. However, the taking of relatively small rodents (including agoutis) intensified only when larger game became scarce. Currently, agouti populations do not appear to have been depleted by the Siona-Secoya in over ten years of hunting (Vickers 1991). The Siona-Secoya’s sustainable agouti harvests might be an example of epiphenomenal conservation. Likewise, Sirén et al. (2004) report that agoutis do not appear to be depleted near the Quichua settlement of Sarayacu.
- 49.
Agoutis were the most common animal hunted by the horticultural prehistoric Cerro Brujo Indians of Panama. As is the case in Amazonia today, these rodents were likely attracted to gardens in the past where native peoples harvested them in amounts disproportionate to their forest biomass (Linares 1976). These findings suggest that these ancient peoples of Panama had depleted the larger prey type populations near their settlement.
- 50.
It is important to note that to date, no such incursion of colonists has occurred in the Achuar Alto Corrientes region. Therefore, the scarcity or absence of any species in either the village patch/area or the hunting camp patch/area harvests cannot be attributed to outsider-induced hunting pressure.
- 51.
Hames reports similar findings: “…in numerous hunts with both Ye’kwana and Yanomamo hunters, I always observed them to pursue game in depleted areas while they were en route to more distant [non-depleted] areas” (Hames 2000:219).
- 52.
- 53.
Similar movements in response to overhunting may have occurred among precontact Great Basin hunter–gatherers. As far back as 4,000 years ago, when faced with declining harvests of high-ranked prey species, valley-bottom foragers temporarily relocated to high-altitude hunting camps where alpine hunters focused on bagging high-ranked prey items such as mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis) over low-ranked prey (Bettinger 2008). These findings are in accord with OFT-based patch selection and optimal diet breadth models.
- 54.
These findings illustrate the folly of subscribing to essentialist constructions of indigeneity (be they conservationist or non-conservationist leaning). Therefore, in order to assess the sustainability of Amerindian wildlife harvests properly, a rigorous examination (on a species-by-species basis) is necessary.
- 55.
Likewise, according to Chagnon, “based on my extensive fieldwork experience in Amazonia, Yanomamö hunters do not harvest wild game with sustainability in mind” (Napoleon Chagnon, personal communication 2011).
- 56.
Vickers (1994) offers the same explanation for why traditionally, the Siona-Secoya did not engage in conservationist harvesting practices. Lu (2006) reports that the same is true for the low population density Huaorani people who inhabit a relatively large territory. Additionally, Stearman holds that “resource management strategies do not exist among the Yuquí because they do not perceive the need for them” (1994:348). Likewise, Wadley and Colfer record how among the Iban of Borneo, “…their ancestors never thought of preserving things for the future because they lived in such abundance of land and forest,…Now, however, the local land base was shrinking, and there was nowhere to migrate, one common alternative in the past…People they said, must now think of the natural resources that they will leave for their descendents” (2004:330).
- 57.
Buege (1996) also blames Euro-American colonialism for the loss of traditional Amerindian conservationist practices.
- 58.
Indeed, research shows that articulation to the Western market economy often provides incentive for native peoples to overharvest local natural resources (Borgerhoff and Coppolillo 2005; Ventocilla et al. 1996). However, it is important to note that contact with the West can also, under certain circumstances, actually promote conservation as the following case involving the Montagnes Indians of Labrador indicates: “In earlier [pre-contact] times, the tribe’s norms had supported community hunting rights within its forests, a system that creates few incentives for an individual hunter to conserve the stock of game. Once the European traders had come on the scene the tribe shifted to a system of exclusive hunting territories…This system is more efficient when game is scarce because the sole owner of a territory inhabited by non-migratory wild animals has a much sharper incentive than a communal hunter to avoid overhunting” (Ellickson 2001:49). Among the Montagnes, “a close relationship existed, both historically and geographically, between the development of private rights in land and the development of the commercial fur trade…Because of the lack of control over hunting by others, it is in no person’s interest to invest or maintain the stock of game” (Demsetz 1967:351).
- 59.
- 60.
The Achuar of the Pastaza Province of Ecuador are served by American Fundamentalist Christian missionaries who are generally hostile to native beliefs. Missionary efforts to stamp put indigenous myths notwithstanding, every adult male hunter in the village of Alto Corrientes reported belief in the existence of supernatural gamekeeper named Amasan who grants men success when foraging just as long as they were respectful of the game they bagged. Significantly, these same hunters attributed all game shortages near their village to the activities of malevolent shamans, not to overhunting on the part of native foragers (Chacon’s unpublished fieldnotes). Some Amerindians, such as the Cree, believed that the more animals they killed, the more animas would be available to them (Brightman 1993; Hames 2000). As such, the Cree believe that a hunter’s inability to bag wild animals came as a result of an individual’s failure to treat the game spirits with respect or due to sorcery, not to a decline in local wildlife populations as a result of overhunting animal population (Charles Bishop, personal communication 2010; Bishop 1981; Bishop and Lytwyn 2007). Additionally, Boigu Islanders of the Torres Strait attribute current dugong and green turtle declines to sorcery. Moreover, Islanders believe that the ocean’s resources are “limitless and inexhaustible” (Raven 1990:296). Similarly, according to Lu, the Waorani “have a perception of – ‘natural abundance’ – a belief that the forest that has always provided for them will always continue to do so” (2006:192). Additionally, Stearman reports that “the Yuquí did not, and still do not recognize that [natural] resources are finite” (1994:348). Along these lines, contemporary Maya hunters believe that a supernatural animal guardian will regenerate wildlife as long as hunters see to it that the bones from harvested animals are properly treated (Chap. 6). For further documentation of similar beliefs among Amerindian groups, see (Brightman 1993; Fienup-Riordan 1990; Krech 1981, 1999, 2007; Niezen 2009; Tanner 1979; Zavaleta 1999).
- 61.
Interestingly, Polo states that in general, the Inka believed that every species had a particular guardian star in the heavens that was charged with that animal’s procreation and increase (Polo 1965). Along these lines, Cobo reports that the Inka believed that the Pleiades star cluster preserved all animal life (Cobo 1990).
- 62.
Chagnon (1997:245) reports that Yanomamö villages with sustained contact with outsiders for 30 years or more experienced lower mortality rates as they were comprised of individuals who had survived the initial “health shock” ensuing from contact with the Western world. Among the Waimiri Atroari of Brazil, the population is growing by 7% per year, indicating an increasing need for substantially more food resources in the near future (Souza-Mazurek et al. 2000). See Picchi (2006) and Lu Holt (2005) for documentation of similar demographic rebounds among native Amazonians.
- 63.
According to Alvard (1995b) human population increases may be more important for the decline of game species than the adoption of more efficient hunting technology.
- 64.
See Hugh-Jones (1992) for documentation of how the material wants of Amazonian peoples may significantly change once they come into contact with the Western world.
- 65.
Dowie states that “…not all indigenous people are perfect land stewards. Only cultural romantics believe that. And even those who were good stewards in years past may cease being so due to population growth, erosion of culture, market pressures, and the misuse of destructive technologies” (2009:111). See Sirén et al. (2004) for the documentation of Amazonian Indians overharvesting various types of Neotropical fauna.
- 66.
“[I]t is often claimed that forest resources will be well managed if only the traditional users were allowed to maintain control. It is, indeed, widely believed that traditional communities use their resources in a sustainable manner. This belief is based on the fact that traditional communities lived at low densities, had limited technology, and practiced subsistence rather than commercial utilization. Unfortunately, given growing population pressure, increased access to modern technology, increasing market orientation, and steady erosion of traditional cultures, there is no guarantee that biodiversity objectives will be any more likely to be achieved if resource control is placed in the hands of indigenous people” (Kramer and Schaik cited in Lu Holt 2005:199–200).
- 67.
TEK constitutes the extensive knowledge and understanding that native peoples possess about their local environment (Gadgil et al. 1993).
- 68.
See Sirén et al. (2004) for an example of the overharvesting of various Neotropical prey types by the Quichua of Sarayacu. The authors also suggest the establishment of no-take areas as a possible solution to local wildlife depletion.
- 69.
For example, one such successful collaboration involved how researchers trained Aché assistants in data collection protocols. This partnership helped investigators arrive at an accurate understanding of the study area’s faunal density (Hill and Padwe 2000).
References
Alvard. M. 1992. “Are Piro Hunters Prudent Predators? Intra-specific Prey Choice in Amazonia.” Unpublished manuscript.
Alvard, M. 1993. “Testing the ‘Ecologically Noble Savage’ Hypothesis: Inter-specific Prey Choice by Piro Hunters of Amazonian Peru.” Human Ecology vol. 21(4):355–387.
Alvard, M. 1994. “Conservation by Native Peoples: Prey Choice in a Depleted Habitat.” Human Nature vol. 5(2):127–154.
Alvard, M. 1995a. “Intraspecific Prey Choice by Amazonian Hunters.” Current Anthropology vol. 36(5):789–802.
Alvard, M. 1995b. “Shotguns and Sustainable Hunting in the Neotropics” Oryx vol. 29:58–66.
Alvard M. 1998. “Indigenous Hunting in the Tropics: Conservation or Optimal Foraging?” In: Behavioral Ecology and Conservation Biology. T. Caro (ed.) Pp. 474–500. New York: Oxford University Press.
Alvard, M. 2000. The Impact of Traditional Hunting and Trapping on Prey Populations: Data From Wana Horticulturalists of Upland Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. In: Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forests, (eds.). J. Robinson and E. Bennet. New York, Columbia University Press. Pp. 214–230.
Alvard, M. 2002. “Evolutionary Theory, Conservation, and Human Environmental Impact.” In: Wilderness and Political Ecology: Aboriginal Influences on the Original State of Nature. C. Kay and R. Simmons (eds.). Pp. 28–43. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Alvard, M., K. Robinson, K., Redford, and H. Kaplan. 1997. “The Sustainability of Subsistence Hunting in the Neotropics.” Conservation Biology vol. 11(4):977–982.
Ambrose, H., and K. Ambrose. 1987. A Handbook of Biological Investigation. 4th Edition. Knoxville: Hunter Textbooks.
Balee, W. 1989. “The Culture of Amazonian Forests.” In: Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies. D. Posey and W. Balee (eds.). Pp. 1–21. The Bronx: New York Botanical Gardens.
Balée, W. 2007. “Complexity and Causality in Tupinamba Warfare.” In: Latin American Indigenous Warfare and Ritual Violence. R. Chacon and R. Mendoza (eds.). Pp. 180–197. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Balée, William and Clark Erickson. 2006. Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Beckerman, Stephen and James Yost. 2007. “Upper Amazonian Warfare.” In: North American Indigenous Warfare and Ritual Violence. R. Chacon and R. Mendoza (eds.). Pp. 142–179. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Bettinger, R., 1976. “The Development of Pinyon Exploitation in Central Eastern California.” Journal of California Anthropology vol. 3:81–95.
Bettinger, Robert. 2008. “High Altitude Sites in the Great Basin.” In: The Great Basin: People and Place in Ancient Times. C. Fowler and D. Fowler (eds.). Pp. 87–103. Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press.
Bishop, C. 1981. “Northeastern Concepts of Conservation and the Fur Trade: A Critique of Calvin Martin’s Thesis.” In: Indians, Animals and the Fur Trade. Shepard Krech III (ed.). Pp. 39–58. Atlanta: University of Georgia Press.
Bishop, Charles A. and Victor Lytwyn. 2007. “Barbarism and Ardour of War from the Tenderest Years: Cree-Inuit Warfare in The Hudson Bay Region.” In: North American Indigenous Warfare and Ritual Violence. R. Chacon and R. Mendoza (eds.) Pp. 30–57. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Bliege Bird, R., E. Smith and D. Bird. 2001. “The Hunting Handicap: Costly Signaling in Human Foraging Strategies.” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology vol. 50:9–19.
Bodley, J. 1990. Victims of Progress. Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing.
Bodmer, R. 1990. “Responses of Ungulates to Seasonal Inundations in the Amazon Floodplain.” Journal of Tropical Ecology vol. 6:191–201.
Borgerhoff, Monique and Peter Coppolillo. 2005. Conservation: Linking Ecology, Economics and Culture. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Booth, A., and H. Jacobs. 1990. “Ties That Bind: Native American Beliefs as a Foundation for Environmental Consciousness.” Environmental Ethics vol. 12:27–44.
Brightman, R. 1987. “Conservation and Resource Depletion: The Case of the Boreal Forest Algonkians.” In: The Question of the Commons. B. McCay and J. Acheson (eds). Pp. 121–141. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Brightman, R.1993. Grateful Prey: Rock Cree Human-Animal Relationships. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Broughton, J. 2002. “Pre-Columbian Human Impact on California Vertebrates.” In: Wilderness and Political Ecology: Aboriginal Influences and the Original State of Nature. C. Kay and R. Simmons (eds.). Pp. 44–71. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Brown, J. 1964. “The Evolution of Diversity in Avian Territorial Systems.” Wilson Bulletin vol. 6:160–169.
Buege, Douglass. 1996. “The Ecologically Noble Savage Revisited.” Environmental Ethics vol. 18:71–88.
Bunyard, P. 1989. “Guardians of the Amazon.” New Scientist vol. 124(1695):38–41.
Campbell, Sarah and Virginia Butler. 2010. Fishes and Loaves? Explaining Sustainable, Long-Term Animal Harvesting on the Northwest Coast Using the Plant Paradigm.” In: The Archaeology of Anthropogenic Environments. Pp. 175–203. R. Dean (ed.). Carbondale, IL: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University.
Carneiro, R. 1970. “A Theory of the Origin of the State.” Science vol. 169:733–738.
Chacon, R. 2001. Testing the Energy Maximization and the Time Minimization Hypotheses: The Effects of Shotgun Technology on Achuar Indian Hunting. Ann Arbor: UMI Dissertation Services.
Chacon, R. 2007. “Seeking The Headhunter’s Power: The Quest for Arutam Among the Achuar Indians of the Ecuadorian Amazon and the Development of Ranked Societies.” In: The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians. R. Chacon and D. Dye (eds.). Pp. 523–546. New York: Springer Press.
Chagnon, Napoleon. 1997. Yanomamö. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace.
Chapin, M. 1991. “Losing the Way of the Great Father.” New Scientist vol. 131(10):40–44.
Chernela, J. 1987. “Endangered Ideologies: Tukano Fishing Taboos.” Cultural Survival Quarterly vol. 11(2):50–52.
Clad, J. 1985. “Conservation and Indigenous Peoples: A Study of Convergent Interests.” In: Culture and Conservation: The Human Dimension in Environmental Planning. J. McNeely and D. Pitt (eds.). Pp. 45–62. London: Croom Helm Publishers.
Clark, C. 1990. Mathematical Bioeconomics: The Optimal Management of Renewable Resources. New York: John-Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Carrier, J. 1987. “Marine Tenure and Conservation in New Guinea: Problems in Interpretation.” In: The Question of the Commons. B. McCay and J. Acheson (eds.). Pp. 142–167. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Cobo, Bernabe. 1990. Inca Religion and Customs. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Conzemius, E. 1932. Ethnographical Survey of the Miskito and Sumo Indians of Honduras and Nicaragua. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office.
Cronk, L., N. Chagnon and W. Irons. 2000. Adaptation and Human Behavior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Davies, N. and A. Hudson. 1984. “Territory Economics.” In: Behavioral Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. J. Krebs and N. Davies (eds.). Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts. Pp. 148–169.
Dawes, R. 1980. “Social Dilemmas.” Annual Review of Psychology vol. 31:169–193.
Demarest, Arthur. 2004. Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Descola, P. 1993. “The World of the Achuar.” In: Amazon Worlds. M. Paymal and C. Sosa (eds.). Pp. 112–129. Quito: Sacha Runa Foundation.
Descola, P. 1996. In the Society of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Demsetz, H. 1967. “Toward a Theory of Property Rights.” The American Economic Review vol. 57(2):347–359.
de Thoisy, Benoit., Cecil Richard-Hansen and Carlos Peres. 2009. “Impacts of Subsistence Game Hunting on Amazonian Primates.” In: South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. P. Garber, A. Estrada, J. Bicca-Marques, E. Heymann and K. Strier (eds.). Pp. 389–412. New York: Springer Press.
Diamond, Jarod. 2005. Collapse: How Socities Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking.
Donald, L. 1977. Aboriginal Slavery on the Northwest Coast of North America. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Donkin, R. 1985. The Peccary: With Observations on the Introduction of Pigs to the New World. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
Dowie, Mark. 2009. Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Ellickson, Robert. 2001. “The Evolution of Social Norms: A Perspective from the Legal Academy.” In: Social Norms. M. Hechter and K. Opp (eds.,). Pp. 35–75. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Emery, Kitty. 2000. “Isotopic Analysis of Ancient Deer Bone: Biotic Stability in Collapse Period Maya Land-use.” Journal of Archaeological Science vol. 27(6):537–550.
Emery, Kitty. 2004. “Environments of the Maya Collapse: A Zooarchaeological Perspective from the Petexbatun, Guatemala.” In: Maya Zooarchaeology: New Directions in Method and Theory. K. Emery (ed.). Pp. 81–96. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Emery, Kitty. 2007. “Assessing the Impact of Ancient Maya Animal Use.” Journal for Nature Conservation vol. 15:184–195.
Erickson, Clark. 2006. “The Domesticated Landscapes of the Bolivian Amazon.” In: Time and Complexity in Historical Ecology. William Balee and Clark Erickson (eds.). Pp.235-278. New York: Columbia University Press.
Estrada, A., and P. Garber. 2009. “Comparative Perspectives in the Study of South American Primates: Research Priorities and Conservation Imperatives.” In: South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. P. Garber, A. Estrada, J. Bicca-Marques, E. Heymann and K. Strier (eds.). Pp. 509–531. New York: Springer Press.
Feit, H. 1973. “The Ethno-Ecology of the Waswanipi Cree, Or How Hunters Can Handle Their Resources.” In: Cultural Ecology. B. Cox (ed.). Pp. 115–125. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.
Ferguson, Brian. 1990. “Explaining War.” In: The Anthropology of War. Pp. 26–55. J. Haas (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fienup-Riordan. 1990. Eskimo Essays: Yup’ik Lives and How We See Them. New Bruswick: Rutgers University Press.
Firth, Raymond. 1983. We, the Tikopia: A Sociological Study of Kinship in Primitive Polynesia. Standford: Standford University Press.
Fisher, R. 1958. The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fittkau, E. 1973. “On Biomass and Trophic Structure of the Central Amazonian Rain Forest System.” Biotropica vol. 5:2–14.
Foley, R. 1985. “Optimality in Anthropology.” Man vol. 20(1):222–242.
Fragoso, Jose. 2004. “A Long Term Study of White-Lipped Peccary (Tayassu pecari) Population Fluctuations in Northern Amazonia.” In: People in Nature: Wildlife Conservation in South and Central America. K. Silvius, R. Bodmer and J. Fragoso (eds.). Pp. 286–296. New York: Colombia University Press.
Franzen, M. 2006. “Evaluating the Sustainability of hunting: A Comparison of Harvest Profiles Across Three Huaorani Communities.” Environmental Conservation vol. 33(1):36–45.
Fowler, C. 1981. “Comparative Population Dynamics in Large Mammals.” In: Dynamics of Large Mammal Populations. C. Fowler and T. Smith (eds.). Pp. 437–455. New York: Wiley.
Gadgil, M., F. Berkes and C. Folke. 1993. “Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation.” Ambio vol. 22:151–156.
Geist, V. 1996. Buffalo Nation: History and Legend of the North American Bison. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press.
Gross, D. 1975. “Protein Capture and Cultural Development in the Amazon.” American Anthropologist vol. 77:526–549.
Gross, D. 1983. “Village Movement in Relation to Resources in Amazonia.” In: Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians. R. Hames and W. Vickers (eds.). Pp. 429–449. New York: Academic Press.
Hames, R. 1987. “Game Conservation or Efficient Hunting?” In: The Question of the Commons. B. McCay and J. Acheson (eds.). Pp. 97–102. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Hames, R. 1991. “Wildlife Conservation in Tribal Societies.” In: Culture, Conservation and Ecodevelopment. M. Oldfield and J. Alcorn (eds.). Pp. 172–199. Boulder: Westview Press.
Hames, R. 2000. “Wildlife Conservation in Tribal Societies.” In: Preserving Wildlife: An International Perspective. M. Michael (ed.). 210–235. New York: Humanity Books.
Hames, R. and W. Vickers. 1982. “Optimal Diet Breadth Theory as a Model to Explain Variability in Amazonian Hunting.” American Ethnologist vol. 9(2):358–378.
Hardin, G. 1968. “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Science vol. 162:1243–1248.
Harris, M. 1974. Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches. New York: Random House.
Harris, M. 1975. Culture, People and Nature. New York: Crowell.
Harris, M. 1979. Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture. New York: Random House.
Harris, L and I. Kochel. 1981. “A Decision-Making Framework for Population Management.” In: Dynamics of Large Mammal Populations. C. Fowler and T. Smith (eds.). Pp. 221–236. New York: Wiley.
Hawkes, K. 1990. “Why Do Men Hunt? Some Benefits for Risky Choices.” In Uncertainty in Tribal and Peasant Economies. Pp. 145–166. E. Cashdan (ed.). Boulder: Westview Press.
Hawkes, K. 1991. “Showing Off: Tests of Another Hypothesis About Men’s Foraging Goals.” Ethology and Sociobiology vol. 12:29–54.
Hawkes, K. 1992. “Sharing and Collective Action.” In: Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior. E. Smith and B. Winterhalder (eds.). Pp. 269–300. New York: de Gruyter.
Hawkes, K. 1993. “Why Hunter-Gatherers Work?” Current Anthropology vol. 34:341–362.
Hendricks, J. 1993. To Drink of Death. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Henrich, J. 1997. “Market Incorporation, Agricultural Change, and Sustainability Among the Machiguenga Indians of the Peruvian Amazon.” Human Ecology vol. 25(2):319–351.
Hill, Kim and Jonathan Padwe. 2000. “Sustainability of Ache Hunting in the Mbaracayu Reserve, Paraguay.” In: Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forests. John Robinson and Elizabeth Bennet (eds.). Pp. 79–105. New York: Columbia University Press.
Hodson, T., F. Enhlander and H. O’Keefee. 1995. “Rainforest Preservation, Markets and Medicinal Plants: Issues of Property Rights and Present Value.” Conservation Biology vol. 9:1319–1321.
Hugh-Jones, S. 1992. “Yesterday’s Luxuries, Tomorrow’s Necessities: Business and Barter in Northwest Amazonia.” In: Barter, Exchange and Value: An Anthropological Approach. C. Humphrey and S. Hugh-Jones (eds.). Pp. 42–74. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hunn, E. and N. Williams. 1982. “Introduction.” In: Resource Managers: North American and Australian Hunter-Gatherers. E. Hunn and N. Williams (eds.). Pp. 1–16. Boulder: Westview Press.
Hvalkof, S. and P. Aaby. 1981. Is God an American: An Anthropological Perspective on the Missionary Work of the Summer Institute of Linguistics. Copenhagen: IWGIA.
Irvine, D. 1987. Resource Management of the Runa Indians of the Ecuadorian Amazon. Ph.D. dissertation. Stanford University. Stanford California.
Jochim, M. 1981. Strategies for Survival: Cultural Behavior in an Ecological Context. New York: Academic Press.
Johnson, A. 1989. “How the Machiguenga Manage Resources: Conservation or Exploitation of Nature?” Advances in Economic Botany vol. 72:213–222.
Karsten, Rafael. 1935. The Head-Hunters of Western Amazonas: The Life and Culture of Jibaro Indians of Western Ecuador and Peru. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Commentationes Humanarium Literarum, vol. 1.
Kay, C. and R. Simmons. 2002. Wilderness and Political Ecology: Aboriginal Influences on the Original State of Nature. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Kensinger, K. and W. Kracke. 1981. Food Taboos in Lowland South America.. Bennington: Benntington College, Vermont.
Kirch, Patrick. 1997. “Microcosmic Histories: Island Perspectives on ‘Global’ Change.” American Anthropologist vol. 99(1):30–42.
Kracke, K. 1981. “Don’t Let the Piranha Bite Your Liver.” In: Food Taboos in Lowland South America. K. Kensinger and K. Kracke (eds.). Pp. 91–43. Bennington: Benntington College, Vermont.
Krebs, J. R. 1978. “Optimal Foraging: Decision Rules for Predators.” In: Behavioral Ecology. J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies (eds.). Pp. 23–63. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
Krech III, Shepard. 1981. “Throwing Bad Medicine.” In Indians, Animals and the Fur Trade. S. Krech III (ed.). Athens: University of Georgia Press. Pp. 75–108.
Krech III, S. 1999. The Ecological Indian. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Krech III, S. 2005. “Reflections on Conservation, Sustainability, and Environmentalism in Indigenous North America.” American Anthropologist vol. 107:78–86.
Krech III, S. 2007. “Beyond the Ecological Indian.” In: Native Americans and the Environment. M. Harkin and D. Rich Lewis (eds.). Pp. 3–31. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Langdon, T. 1981. “Food Taboos and the Balance of Oppositions Among the Barasana and Taiwano.” In: Food Taboos in Lowland South America. K. Kensinger and K. Kracke (eds.). Pp. 56–75. Benntington: Benntington College, Vermont.
Langdon, Stephen. 2007. “Sustaining a Relationship: Inquiry into the Emergence of a Logic of Engagement With Salmon Among the Southern Tlingits.” In: Native Americans and the Environment: Perspectives on the Ecological Indian. M. Harkin and D. Lewis (eds.). Pp. 231–273. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Lathrap, D. 1968. “The Hunting Economies of the Tropical Forest of South America.” In: Man the Hunter. R. Lee and I. De Vore (eds.). London: Thames and Hudson. Pp. 29–39.
LeBlanc, S. and S. Register. 2003. Constant Battles: The Myth of the Peaceful, Noble Savage. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Linares, O. 1976. “Garden Hunting in the American Tropics.” Human Ecology vol. 4(4):331–349.
Low, B. 1996. “Behavioral Ecology of Conservation in Traditional Societies.” Human Nature vol. 7(4):353–379.
Low, B. and J. Heinen. 1993. “Population, Resources, and Environment: Implications of Human Behavioral Ecology for Conservation.” Population and Environment vol. 15(1):7–41.
Loewenstein, G. and J. Elster. 1992. Choice Over Time. New York: Russell Sage Publications.
Lu, Flora. 2001. “The Common Property Regime of the Huarani Indians of Ecuador: Implications and Challenges to Conservation.” Human Ecology vol. 29(4):425–215.
Lu, Flora. 2006. “‘The Commons’ in an Amazonian Context.” Social Analysis vol. 50(3):187–194.
Lu Holt, Flora. 2005. “The Catch 22 of Conservation: Indigenous Peoples, Biologists, and Cultural Change.” Human Ecology vol. 33(2):199–215.
MacArthur, R. 1972. Geographical Ecology. New York: University of Washington Press.
MacArthur, R. and E. Pianka. 1966.” On the Optimality of a Patchy Environment.” American Naturalist vol. 100:603–609.
Mann, Charles. 2005. 1491: New Revelations Before Columbus. New York: Knopf.
March, I. 1993. “The White Lipped Peccary.” In: Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos-Status Survey and Conservation Plan. W. Oliver (ed.). Pp.13-21. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Martin, C. 1978a. “The War Between the Indians and Animals.” Natural History vol. 6:92–96.
Martin, C. 1978b. Keepers of the Game: Indian Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Mayer, J. and P. Brandt. 1982. “Identity, Distribution, and Natural History of the Peccaries.” In: Mammalian Biology in South America. M. Mares and H. Gennoways (eds.). Pp.433-455. Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press.
McDonald, D. 1977. “Food Taboos: A Primitive Environmental Protection Agency.” Anthropos vol.72:734–748.
Meggers, B. 1971. Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
Murphy, Y and R. Murphy. 1974. Women of the Forest. New York: Columbia University Press.
Nelson, R. 1982. “A Conservation Ethic and Environment: The Koyukon of Alaska.” In: Resource Managers. N. Williams and E. Hunn (eds.). Pp. 211–228. Boulder: Westview Press.
Nelson, R. 1983. Make Prayers to the Raven: A Koyukon View of the Northern Forest. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Nelson, L and J. Peek. 1982. “Effects of Survival and Fecundity on Rate of Increase on Elk.” Journal of Wildlife Management vol.46:535–540.
Newson, L. 1996. “The Population of the Amazon Basin in 1492: A View from the Ecuadorian Headwaters.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers vol. 21(1):5–26.
Niezen, R. 2009. Defending the Land: Sovereignty and Forest Life in James Bay Cree Society. Upper saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Olson, M. 1965. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Orians, G. and N. Pearson. 1979. “On the Theory of Central Place Foraging.” In: Analysis of Ecological Systems. R. Mitchell (ed.). Pp.155-177. Columbus: Ohio University Press.
Peres, Carlos and Hilton Nascimento. 2005. “Impact of Game Hunting by the Kayapo of South-Eastern Amazonia: Implications for Wildlife Conservation in Tropical Forest Indigenous Reserves.” Biodiversity and Conservation vol. 120:1–27.
Picchi, Debra. 2006. The Bakairí Indians of Brazil: Politics, Ecology, and Change. Long Grove: Waveland Press Inc.
Pierotti, Raymond. 2010. Indigenous Knowledge, Ecology, and Evolutionary Biology. New York: Routledge Press.
Pimm, S. 1991. The Balance of Nature? Ecological Issues in the Conservation of Species and Communities. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Polo de Onedegardo, Juan. 1965. “On the Errors and Superstitions of the Indians, Taken from the Treatise and Investigation done by Licenciate Polo.” In: Information Concerning the Religion and Government of the Incas. Pp. 1–53. A. Brunel, J. Murra and S. Muirden (eds.). New Haven: Human Relations Area File.
Preucel, Robert and Ian Hodder. 1996. “Nature and Culture.” In: Contemporary Archaeology in Theory. R. Preucel and I. Hodder (eds.). Pp. 23–38. Malden: Blackwell Publications.
Raab, Mark and Terry Jones. 2004. Prehistoric California: Archaeology and the Myth of Paradise. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press.
Ranco, Darren. 2007. “The Ecological Indian and the Politics of Representation.” In: Native Americans and the Environment: Perspectives on the Ecological Indian. M. Harkin and D. Lewis (eds.). Pp. 32–51. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Raven, Michelle. 1990. “The Point of No Diminishing Returns: Hunting and Resource Decline on Boigu Island, Torres Strait.” Ph. D. Dissertation. University of California, Davis. Ann Arbor: UMI.
Redford, K. 1991. “The Ecologically Noble Savage.” Cultural Survival Quarterly vol. 15(1): 46–48.
Redford, K. 1992. “The Empty Forest.” BioScience vol. 42(6):412–422.
Redford, K. and A. Stearman. 1993. “Forest-Dwelling Native Amazonians and the Conservation of Biodiversity: Interests in Common or in Collision?” Conservation Biology vol. 7(2):248–255.
Reichel-Dolmatoff, G. 1974. Amazonian Cosmos: The Sexual and Religious Symbolism of the Tukano Indians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Repetto, R., and T., Holmes. 1983. “The Role of Population in Resource Depletion in Developing Countries.” Population and Development Review vol. 9:609–632.
Ridley, M. and B. Low. 1994. Can Selfishness Save the Environment? Human Ecology Review vol. 1:1–13.
Robarchek, C. A. and C. J. Robarchek. 1992. “A Comparative Study of Waorani and Semai.” In: Aggression and Peace in Humans and Other Primates. J. Silverberg and J. P. Gray (eds.). Pp. 188–213. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rogers, A. 1991. “Conserving Resources for Children.” Human Nature vol. 1:73–82.
Roosevelt, A. 1980. Parmana: Prehistoric Maize and Manioc Subsistence Along the Amazon and Orinoco. New York: Academic Press.
Roosevelt, A. 1987. “Chiefdoms in the Amazon and Orinoco.” In: Chiefdoms in the Americas. R. Drennan and C. Uribe (eds.). Pp. 153–184. Lanham: University Press of America.
Roosevelt, A. 1989. “Lost Civilizations of the Lower Amazon.” Natural History vol. 2:75–82.
Ross, E. 1976. The Achuara Jivaro: Cultural Adaptation in the Upper Amazon. Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University. Ann Arbor: (Xerox) University Microfilms.
Ross, E. 1978. “Food Taboos, Diet, and Hunting Strategy: The Adaptation to Animals in Amazonian Cultural Ecology.” Current Anthropology vol.19:1–36.
Sirén, A., P. Hamback, and J. Machoa. 2004. “Including Spatial Heterogeneity and Animal Dispersal When Evaluating Hunting: a Model Analysis and an Empirical Assessment in an Amazonian Community.” Conservation Biology vol. 18(5):1315–1329.
Siskind, J. 1973. “Tropical Forest Hunters and the Economy of Sex.” In: Peoples and Cultures of Native South America. D. Gross (ed.). pp. 226–240. New York: Doubleday Press.
Slobodkin, L. 1961. Growth and Regulation of Animal Populations. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Slobodkin, L. 1968. “How to be a Predator.” American Zoologist vol. 8:43–51.
Smith E. A. 1983. “Anthropological Applications of Optimal Foraging Theory.” Current Anthropology vol. 24:625–651.
Smith, E. A. 1985. “Inuit Foraging Groups: Some Simple Models Incorporating Conflicts of Interest, Relatedness, and Central Place Sharing.” Ethology and Sociobiology vol. 6:27–47.
Smith, E. A. 1987. “On Fitness Maximization, Limited Needs and Hunter Gatherer Time Allocation.” Ethology and Sociobiology vol. 8:73–85.
Smith, E. A., and Mark Wishnie. 2000. “Conservation in Small-Scale Societies.” Annual Review of Anthropology vol 29:493–524.
Smith, N. 2001. “Are Indigenous People Conservationists? Preliminary Results From the Machiguenga of the Peruvian Amazon.” Rationality and Society vol. 13(4):429–461.
Souza-Mazurek, R., T. Pedrinho, X. Feliciano, W. Hilario, S. Gerôncio, and E. Marcelo. 2000. “Subsistence Hunting Among the Waimiri Atroari Indians of Central Amazonia.” Biodiversity and Conservation vol. 9:579–596.
Sowls, L. 1984. The Peccaries. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
Stearman, A. 1990. “The Effects of Settler Incursion on Fish and Game Resources of the Yuqui.” Human Organization vol. 49:373–385.
Stearman, A. 1992. “Neotropical Indigenous Hunters and Their Neighbors: Siriono, Chimane, and Yuqui Hunting on the Bolivian Frontier.” In: Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Working From Traditional Resource Use. K. Redford and C. Padoch (eds.). Pp. 108–128. New York: Columbia University Press.
Stearman, A. 1994. “Only Slaves Climb Trees: Revisiting the Myth of the Ecologically Noble Savage in Amazonia.” Human Nature vol. 5(4):339–356.
Stephens, D. and J. Krebs. 1986. Foraging Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Stoffle, R., 2005. “Places That Count: Traditional Cultural Practices in Cultural Resource Management: Tribal Cultural Resource Management: Full Circle to Stewardship.” American Anthropologist vol. 107:138–140.
Tanner, A. 1979. Bringing Home Animals: Religious Ideology and Mode of Production of the Mistassini Cree Hunters. St. John: Institute of Social and Economic Research.
Taylor, K. 1981. “Knowledge and Praxis in Sanuma Food Prohibitions.” In: Food Taboos in Lowland South America. K. Kensinger and K. Kracke (eds.). Pp. 24–54. Benntington: Benntington College, Vermont.
Terborgh, J., J. Fitzpatrick and L. Emmons. 1984. “An Annotated List of the Birds and Mammals of Cocha Cashu Biological Station.” Fieldiana vol. 21:1–29.
Ventocilla, Jorge, Valerio Nuñez, Heraclio Herrera, Francisco Herrera, and Mac Chapin. 1996. “The Kuna Indians and conservation.” In: Traditional Peoples and Biodiversity Conservation in Large Tropical Landscapes. K. Redford and J. Mansour (eds.) Pp. 33–56. Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservancy.
Vickers, W. 1991. “Hunting Yields and Game Composition Over Ten Years in an Amazon Indian Territory.” In: Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation. J. Robinson and K. Redford (eds.). Pp. 53–81. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Vickers, W. 1994. “From Opportunism to Nascent Conservationism.” Human Nature vol. 5(4):307–337.
Wadley, R. and C. Colfer. 2004. “Sacred Forest, Hunting, and Conservation in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.” Human Ecology vol. 32(3):313–338.
Wadley, R., C. Colfer and I. Hood. 1997. “Hunting Primates and Managing Forests: The Case of Iban Farmers in Indonesian Borneo.” Human Ecology vol. 25(2):243–271.
Webster, David. 2002. The Fall of the Ancient Maya. London: Thames & Hudson.
Werner, D. 1983 “Fertility and Pacification Among the Mekranoti of Brazil.” Human Ecology vol. 11(2):227–245.
Williams, G. 1966. Adaptation and Natural Selection. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Winterhalder, Bruce and Flora Lu. 1997. “A Forager-Resource Population Ecology Model and Implications for Indigenous Conservation.” Conservation Biology vol. 11(4):1354–1364.
Winterhalder, B., W. Baillargeon, F. Capoletto, I. Daniel and C. Prescott. 1988. “The Population Ecology of Hunter-Gatherers and their Prey.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeological Research vol. 7:289–328.
Yesner, D. 1981. “Archaeological Applications of Optimal Foraging Theory: Harvest Strategies of Aleut Hunter-Gatherers.” In: Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analyses. B. Winterhalder and E. Smith (eds.). Pp. 148–170. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Zavaleta, Erika. 1999. “The Emergence of Waterfowl Conservation Among Yup’ik Hunters in the Yukon-Kuskowin Delta, Alaska.” Human Ecology vol. 27(2):231–266.
Acknowledgments
In South America, I wish to thank Dr. Patricio Moncayo (Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Ecuador) for years of friendship and collaboration. Also, much gratitude is extended toward Steve and Dorothy Nelson, and Mauro and Susana Palacios along with Silvio and Viviana Almeida for their friendship and gracious hospitality while in Ecuador. My deepest and most sincere gratitude goes to my Achuar friends of Alto Corrientes.
In the USA, I am most grateful to William Vickers, Kitty Emery, Allyn Stearman, Flora Lu, Charles Kay, William Rogers, and to the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful critiques of this chapter. I am also indebted to Jonathan Marx, William Rogers, and Charles Tucker for their aid in the statistical analysis of the data presented in this work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Chacon, R.J. (2012). Conservation or Resource Maximization? Analyzing Subsistence Hunting Among the Achuar (Shiwiar) of Ecuador. In: Chacon, R., Mendoza, R. (eds) The Ethics of Anthropology and Amerindian Research. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1065-2_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-1065-2_13
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-1064-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-1065-2
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)