Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Anthrax: A Disease and a Weapon

  • Chapter
Bioterrorism and Infectious Agents: A New Dilemma for the 21st Century

Part of the book series: Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century ((EIDC))

Abstract

Anthrax infection was described in ancient literature and religious writings. Some biblical scholars have interpreted descriptions of two of the plagues that struck Egypt around 1500 B.C. as anthrax epidemics. The 5th plague, as described in the book of Exodus, is a plague of grievous murrain (an infectious and fast-spreading disease) that affected livestock (Witkowski, 2002). The description of the 6th plague, or the Plague of Boils, is very similar to the symptoms of cutaneous anthrax (raised inflammatory swelling and blisters also suggest anthrax) (CNN.com, 2001).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Abramova, A.A., and Grinberg, L.M. (1993). [Pathology of anthrax sepsis according to materials of the infectious outbreak in 1979 in Sverdlovsk (microscopic changes)] Arkh. Patol. 55:18–23 (in Russian).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Abramova, F.A., Grinberg, L.M., Yampolskaya, O.V., and Walker, D.H. (1993). Pathology of inhala-tional anthrax in 42 cases from the Sverdlovsk outbreak of 1979. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:2291–2294.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. ABS, a Subsidiary of Analex. (2004). Report to the Department of State, August.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Albrink, W., Brooks, S., Biron, R., and Kopel, M. (1960). Human inhalation anthrax: a report of three fatal cases. Am. J. Pathol. 36:457–468.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Albrink, W.S., and Goodlow, R.J. (1959). Experimental inhalation anthrax in chimpanzees. Am. J. Pathol. 35:1055–1065.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Alibek, K. (1999). Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World – Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It. Random House, New York, p. 74.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Barakat, L.A., Quentzel, H.L., Jernigan, J.A., Kirschke, D.L., Griffith, K., Spear, S.M., Kelley, K., Barden, D., Mayo, D., Stephens, D.S., Popovic, T., Marston, C., Zaki, S.R., Guarner, J., Shieh, W.J., Carver, H.W. 2nd, Meyer, R.F., Swerdlow, D.L., Mast, E.E., and Hadler, J.L. [Anthrax Bioterrorism Investigation Team]. (2002). Fatal inhalational anthrax in a 94-year-old Connecticut woman. J.A.M.A., 287(7):863–868.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Barnaby, W. (2000). The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Weapons. Continuum, New York, 123.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Belluck, P. (2001). Anthrax Outbreak of '57 Felled a Mill but Yielded Answers. New York Times, October 27, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Bonventre, P.F., and Eckert, N.J. (1963). The biologic activities of Bacillus anthracis and Bacillus cereus culture filtrates. Am. J. Pathol. 43:201–211.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Bonventre, P.F., Sueoka, W., True, C.W., Klein, F., and Lincoln, R. (1967). Attempts to implicate the central nervous system as a primary site of action for Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin. Fed. Proc. 26:1549–1553.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Brachman, P., and Pagano, J. (1961). Two cases of fatal inhalation anthrax, one associated with sar-coidosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 265:203–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Brachman, P.S. (1980). Inhalation anthrax. Ann N.Y. Acad. Sci. 353:83–93.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Brook, I. (2002). The prophylaxis and treatment of anthrax. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 20(5):320–325 [review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Brooksher, W., and Briggs, J. (1920). Pulmonary anthrax: report of a case. J.A.M.A. 74:323–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Bush, L.M., Abrams, B.H., Beall, A., and Johnson, C.C. (2001). Index case of fatal inhalational anthrax due to bioterrorism in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 345:1607–1610.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Carucci, J.A., McGovern, T.W., Norton, S.A., Daniel, C.R., Elewski, B.E., Fallon-Friedlander, S., Lushniak, B.D., Taylor, J.S., Warschaw, K., and Wheeland, R.G. (2002). Cutaneous anthrax management algorithm. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 47(5):766–769.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Carus, W.S. (2001). Bioterrorism and Biocrimes: The Illicit Use of Biological Agents Since 1900. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Center for Counterproliferation Research, pp. 108–109.

    Google Scholar 

  19. CDC Emergency Preparedness and Response Website. (2001). Anthrax Q & A. http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/anthrax/faq/diagnosis.asp.

  20. CDC Treatment Protocols for Cases of Inhalational and Cutaneous Anthrax Associated with Bioter-rorist Attack Website. (2001). Anthrax Q & A. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5042a1.htm.

  21. Chandramukhi, A., Shankar, P., Rao, T., Sundararajan, S., and Swamy, H.S. (1987). Acute lep-tomeningitis due to Bacillus anthracis. Trop. Geol. Med. 35:79–82.

    Google Scholar 

  22. CNN.com (2001). Anthrax through the ages. http://www.cnn.com/2001/HEALTH/conditions/10/16/anthrax.timeline/

  23. Cole, S.T., Eiglmeier, K., Parkhill, J., James, K.D., Thomson, N.R., Wheeler, P.R., Honore, N., Garnier, T., Churcher, C., Harris, D., Mungall, K., Basham, D., Brown, D., Chillingworth, T., Connor, R., Davies, R.M., Devlin, K., Duthoy, S., Feltwell, T., Fraser, A., Hamlin, N., Holroyd, S., Hornsby, T., Jagels, K., Lacroix, C., Maclean, J., Moule, S., Murphy, L., Oliver, K., Quail, M.A., Rajandream, M.A., Rutherford, K.M., Rutter, S., Seeger, K., Simon, S., Simmonds, M., Skelton, J., Squares, R., Squares, S., Stevens, K., Taylor, K., Whitehead, S., Woodward, J.R., and Barrell, B.G. (2001). Massive gene decay in the leprosy bacillus. Nature 409:1007–1011.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Committee to Assess the Safety and Efficacy of the Anthrax Vaccine, Medical Follow-Up Agency. (2002). The Anthrax Vaccine: Is It Safe? Does It Work? Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., http://www.iom.edu/iom/iomhome.nsf/WFiles/Anthrax-8-pager1FINAL/$file/Anthrax-8-pager1FINAL.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Cowdery, J. (1947). Primary pulmonary anthrax with septicemia. Arch. Pathol. 43:396–399.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Cranmer, H., and Martinez, M. (2003). CBRNE – anthrax infection. http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic864.htm/.

  27. Dalldorf, F.G., and Beall, F.A. (1967). Capillary thrombosis as a cause of death in experimental anthrax. Arch. Pathol. 83:154–161.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Dixon, T.C., Fadl, A.A., Koehler, T.M., Swanson, J.A., and Hanna, P.C. (2000). Early Bacillus anthracis-macrophage interactions: intracellular survival survival and escape. Cell Microbiol. 2:453–463.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Doganay, M., Almac, A., and Hanagasi, R. (1986). Primary throat anthrax. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 18:415–419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Drake, D.J., and Blair, A.W. (1971). Meningitic anthrax. Cent. Afr. J. Med. 17:97–98.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Dutz, W., and Kohout, E. (1971). Anthrax. Pathol. Annu. 6:209–248.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Enticknap, J.B., Galbraith, N.S., Tomlinson, A.J.H., and Elias-Jones, T.F. (1968). Pulmonary anthrax caused by contaminated sacks. Br. J. Industr. Med. 25:72–74.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Eremin, S.A., Nikiforov, A.K., Kostiukova, T.A., and Mikshis, N.I. (1999). The capacity of the causative agent of anthrax to reduce methylene blue. Zh. Mikrobiol. Epidemiol. Immunobiol. 4:91–92 (in Russian).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Erwin, J.L., DaSilva, L.M., Bavari, S., Little, S.F., Friedlander, A.M., and Chanh, T.C. (2001). Macrophage-derived cell lines do not express proinflammatory cytokines after exposure to Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin. Infect. Immun. 69:1175–1177.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Fellows, P., Linscott, M., Ivins, B., et al. (2001). Efficacy of a human anthrax vaccine in guinea pigs, rabbits, and rhesus macaques against challenge by Bacillus anthracis isolates of diverse geographical origin. Vaccine 19:3241–3247.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Fouet, A., Sirard, J.C., and Mock, M. (1994). Bacillus anthracis pXO1 virulence plasmid encodes a type 1 DNA topoisomerase. Mol. Microbiol. 11:471–479.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Friedlander, A.M. (1986). Macrophages are sensitive to anthrax lethal toxin through an acid-dependent process. J. Biol. Chem. 261:7123–7126.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Friedlander, A.M., Welkos, S.L., Pitt, M.L.M., Ezzell, J.W., Worsham, P.L., Rose, K.J., Ivins, B.E., Lowe, J.R., Howe, G.B., Mikesell, P., and Lawrence, W.B. (1993). Postexposure prophylaxis against experimental inhalation anthrax. J. Infect. Dis. 167:1239–1243.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Fukao, T. (2004). Immune system paralysis by anthrax lethal toxin: the roles of innate and adaptive immunity. Lancet Infect. Dis. 4:166–170 [review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Gold, H. (1955). Anthrax: a report of one hundred seventeen cases. AMA Arch. Intern. Med. 96:387–396.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Goodman, J.W., and Nitecki, D.E. (1967). Studies on the relation of a prior immune response to immunogenicity. Immunology 13:577–583.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Gordon, V.M., Klimpel, K.R., Arora, N., Henderson, M.A., and Leppla, S.H. (1995). Proteolytic activation of bacterial toxins by eukaryotic cells is performed by furin and by additional cellular proteases. Infect. Immun. 63:82–87.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Greenwood, D., Slack, R., and Peutherer, J. (1997). Medical Microbiology. A Guide to Microbial Infections: Pathogenesis, Immunity, Laboratory Diagnosis and Control. Churchill Livingstone, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Grinberg, L.M., Abramova, F.A.,Yampolskaya, O.V., Walker, D.H., and Smith, J.H. (2001). Quantitative pathology of inhalational anthrax I: quantitative microscopic findings. Mod. Pathol. 14:482–495.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Guidi-Rontani, C., Levy, M., Ohayon, H., and Mock, M. (2001). Fate of germinated Bacillus anthracis spores in primary murine macrophages. Mol. Microbiol. 42:931–938 [erratum in Mol. Microbiol. 2002;44:297].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Guidi-Rontani, C., Pereira, Y., Ruffie, S., Sirard, J.C., Weber-Levy, M., and Mock, M. (1999). Identification and characterization of a germination operon on the virulence plasmid pXO1 of Bacillus anthracis. Mol. Microbiol. 33:407–414.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Guidi-Rontani C., Weber-Levy, M., Labruyère, E., and Mock, M. (1999). Germination of Bacillus anthracis spores within alveolar macrophages. Mol. Microbiol. 31:9–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Haight, T.H. (1952). Anthrax meningitis: review of literature and report of two cases with autopsies. Am. J. Med. Sci. 224:57–69.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Hail, A.S., Rossi, C.A., Ludwig, G.V., Ivins, B.E., Tammariello, R.F., and Henchal, E.A. (1999). Comparison of non-invasive sampling sites for early detection of Bacillus anthracis spores from rhesus monkeys after aerosol exposure. Mil. Med. 164:833–837.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Hanna, P.C., Kruskal, B.A., Ezekowitz, R.A., Bloom, B.R., and Collier, R.J. (1994). Role of macrophage oxidative burst in the action of anthrax lethal toxin. Mol. Med. 1:7–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Hansen, H.J., Norberg, B.K., and Schmiterloew, C.G. (1961). Pathophysiological studies on anthrax. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 51(Suppl 144):307–308.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Heidelberg, J.F., Eisen, J.A., Nelson, W.C., Clayton, R.A., Gwinn, M.L., Dodson, R.J., Haft, D.H., Hickey, E.K., Peterson, J.D., Umayam, L., Gill, S.R., Nelson, K.E., Read, T.D., Tettelin, H., Richardson, D., Ermolaeva, M.D., Vamathevan, J., Bass, S., Qin, H., Dragoi, I., Sellers, P., McDonald, L., Utterback, T., Fleishmann, R.D., Nierman, W.C., and White, O. (2000). DNA sequence of both chromosomes of the cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae. Nature 406:477–483.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Inglesby, T.V., O'Toole, T., Henderson, D.A., Bartlett, J.G., Ascher, M.S., Eitzen, E., Friedlander, A.M., Gerberding, J., Hauer, J., Hughes, J., McDade, J., Osterholm, M.T., Parker, G., Perl, T.M., Russell, T.K., and Tonat, K. (2002). Anthrax as a biological weapon, 2002: updated recommendations for management. J.A.M.A. 287:2236–2252 [review; erratum in J.A.M.A. 2002;288:1849].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Ivins, B.E., Fellows, P., and Pitt, M.L., et al. (1996). Efficacy of standard human anthrax vaccine against Bacillus anthracis aerosol spore challenge in rhesus monkeys. Salisbury Med. Bull. 87:125–126.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Jamie, W.E. (2002). Anthrax: diagnosis, treatment, prevention. Primary Care Update for OB/GYNs 9:117–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Jernigan, D.B., Raghunathan, P.L., Bell, B.P., Brechner, R., Bresnitz, E.A., Butler, J.C., Cetron, M., Cohen, M., Doyle, T., Fischer, M., Greene, C., Griffith, K.S., Guarner, J., Hadler, J.L., Hayslett, J.A., Meyer, R., Petersen, L.R., Phillips, M., Pinner, R., Popovic, T., Quinn, C.P., Peefhuis, J., Reissman, D., Rosenstein, N., Schuchat, A., Shieh, W.J., Siegal, L., Swerdlow, D.L., Tenover, F.C., Traegar, M., Ward, J.W., Weisfuse, I., Wiersma, S., Yeskey, K., Zaki, S., Ashford, D.A., Perkins, B.A., Ostroff, S., Hughes, J., Fleming, D., Koplan, J.P., Gerberding, and the National Anthrax Investigation Team. (2002). Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8:1019–1028.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Jernigan, J.A., Stephens, D.S., Ashford, D.A., Omenaca, C., Topiel, M.S., Galbraith, M., Tapper, M., Fisk, T.L., Zaki, S., Popovic, T., Meyer, R.F., Quinn, C.P., Harper, S.A., Fridkin, S.K., Sejvar, J.J., Shepard, C.W., McConnell, M., Guarner, J., Shieh, W.J., Malecki, J.M., Gerberding, J.L., Hughes, J.M., Perkins, B.A., and members of the Anthrax Bioterrorism Investigation Team. (2001). Bioterrorism-related inhalational anthrax: the first 10 cases reported in the United States. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 7:933–944.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Keim, P., Smith, K.L., Keys, C., Takahashi, H., Kurata, T., and Kaufmann, A. (2001). Molecular investigation of the Aum Shinrikyo anthrax release in Kameido, Japan. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39(12):4566–4567.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Klein, F., Hodges, D.R., Mahlandt, B.G., Jones, W.I., Haines, B.W., and Lincoln, R.E. (1962). Anthrax toxin: causative agent in the death of rhesus monkeys. Science. 138:1331–1333.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Klein, F., Walker, J.S., Fitzpatrick, D.F., Lincoln, R.E., Mahlandt, B.G., Jones, W.I. Jr, Dobbs J.P., and Hendrix, K.J. (1966). Pathophysiology of anthrax. J. Infect. Dis. 116:123–138.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Klichko, V.I., Miller, J., Wu, A., Popov, S.G., and Alibek, K. (2003). Anaerobic induction of Bacillus anthracis hemolytic activity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 303:855–862.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Knights, E.M. (0000). Anthrax. History Magazine. Accessed online at: http://www.historymagazine.com/anthrax.html.

  63. Koshi, G.M., Lalitha, D.J., Chacko, A., and Pulimood, B. (1981). Anthrax meningitis, a rare clinical entity. J Assoc. Phys. Ind. 29:59–62.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Kozel, T.R., Murphy, W.J., Brandt, S., Blazar, B.R., Lovchik, J.A., Thorkildson, P., Percival, A., and Lyons, C.R. (2004). mAbs to Bacillus anthracis capsular antigen for immunoprotection in anthrax and detection of antigenemia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101:5042–5047

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Krauss, F. (1943). Anthrax appearing primarily in the nose. Arch. Otolaryngol. 37:238–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. LaForce, F.M., Bumford, F.H., Feeley, J.C., Stokes, S.L., and Snow, D.B. (1969). Epidemiologic study of a fatal case of inhalation anthrax. Arch. Environ. Health. 18:798–805.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Lindberg, A.A. (1999). Polyosides (encapsulated bacteria). C.R. Acad. Sci. 322:925–932.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Lindeque, P.M., and Turnbull, P.C. (1994). Ecology and epidemiology of anthrax in the Etosha National Park, Namibia. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 61:71–83.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Little, S.F., and Ivins, B.E. (1999). Molecular pathogenesis of Bacillus anthracis infection. Microb. Infect. 2:131–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Litusov, N.V., Vasilyev, N.T., Vasilyev, P.G., and Burgasov, P.N. (2002). Pathomorphology of anthrax. Meditsina.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Liu, S., Schubert, R.L., Bugge, T.H., and Leppla, S.H. (2003). Anthrax toxin: structures, functions and tumour targeting. Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 3:843–853 [review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Macher, A. (2002). An industry-related outbreak of human anthrax, Massachusetts, 1868. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8:1182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Makino, S.I., Uchida, I., Terakado, N., Sasakawa, C., and Yoshikawa, M. (1989). Molecular characterization and protein analysis of the cap region, which is essential for encapsulation in Bacillus anthracis. J. Bacteriol. 171:722–730.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Mangold, T., and Goldberg, J. (1999). Plague Wars: The Terrifying Reality of Biological Warfare. St. Martins Griffin, New York, pp. 19–24.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Mesnage, S., Tosi-Couture, E., Gounon, P., Mock, M., and Fouet, A. (1998). The capsule and S-layer: two independent and yet compatible macromolecular structures in Bacillus anthracis. J. Bacteriol. 180:52–58.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Mikesell, P., Ivins, B.E., Ristroph, J.D., Vodkin, M.H., Dreier, T.M., and Leppla, S.H. (1983). Plasmids, Pasteur, and Anthrax. ASM News 49:320–322.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Milne, J.C., and Collier, R.J. (1993). pH-dependent permeabilization of the plasma membrane of mammalian cells by anthrax protective antigen. Mol. Microbiol. 10:647–653.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Milne, J.C., Furlong, D., Hanna, P.C., Wall, J.S., and Collier, R.J. (1994). Anthrax protective antigen forms oligomers during intoxication of mammalian cells. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 20607–20612.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Moayeri, M., Haines, D., Young, H.A., and Leppla, S.H. (2003). Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin induces TNF-alpha-independent hypoxia-mediated toxicity in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 112:670–682.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Mock, M., and Mignot, T. (2003). Anthrax toxins and the host: a story of intimacy. Cell Microbiol. 5:15–23 [review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Mogridge, J., Cunningham, K., and Collier, R.J. (2002). Stoichiometry of anthrax toxin complexes. Biochemistry 41:1079–1082.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Norberg, B.K., Schmiterloew, C.G., Bergrahm, B., and Lundstroem, H. (1964). Further pathophysi-ological investigations into the terminal course of experimental anthrax in the rabbit. Acta. Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 60:108–116.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Office of Public Health Service Historian – National Library of Medicine. (2001). A Brief History of Anthrax. http://lhncbs.nlm.nih.gov/apdb/phsHistory/resources/anthrax/anthrax02.html.

  85. Ogata, H., Audic, S., Renesto-Audiffren, P., Fournier, P.E., Barbe, V., Samson, D., Roux, V., Cossart, P., Weissenbach, J., Claverie, J.M., and Raoult, D. (2001). Mechanisms of evolution in Rickettsia conorii and R. prowazekii. Science 293:2093–2098.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Okinaka, R.T., Cloud, K., Hampton, O., Hoffmaster, A.R., Hill, K.K., Keim, P., Koehler, T.M., Lamke, G., Kumano, S., Mahillon, J., Manter, D., Martinez, Y., Ricke, D., Svensson, R., and Jackson, P.J. (1999). Sequence and organization of pXO1, the large Bacillus anthracis plasmid harboring the anthrax toxin genes. J. Bacteriol. 181:6509–6515.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Pellizzari, R., Guidi-Rontani, C., Vitale, G., Mock, M., and Montecucco, C. (1999). Anthrax lethal factor cleaves MKK3 in macrophages and inhibits the LPS/IFNgamma-induced release of NO and TNFalpha. FEBS Lett. 462:199–204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Pile, J.C., Malone J.D., and Etizen, E.M., et al. (1998). Anthrax as a potential biological warfare agent. Arch. Intern. Med. 158:429–434.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Plotkin, S.A., Brachman, P.S., Utell, M., Bumford, F.H., and Atchison, M.M. (2002). An epidemic of inhalation anthrax, the first in the twentieth century: clinical features. Am. J. Med. 112:4–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Pluot, M., Vital, C., Aubertin, J., Croix, J.C., Pire, J.C., and Poisot D. (1976). Anthrax meningitis: report of two cases with autopsies. Acta Neuropathol. 36:339–345.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Popov, S.G., Villasmil, R., Bernardi, J., Grene, E., Cardwell, J., Popova, T., Wu, A., Alibek, D., Bailey, C., and Alibek, K. (2002a). Effect of Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. FEBS Lett. 527:211–215.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Popov, S.G., Villasmil, R., Bernardi, J., Grene, E., Cardwell, J., Wu, A., Alibek, D., Bailey, C., and Alibek, K. (2002b). Lethal toxin of Bacillus anthracis causes apoptosis of macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 293:349–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Ramachandran, S., and Natarajan, M. (1968). Tissue response to experimental anthrax of sheep and goats. Indian Vet. J. 45:381–387.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Rangel, R.A., and Gonzalez, D.A. (1975). Bacillus anthracis meningitis. Neurology 25:525–530.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Ray, K.C., Mesnage, S., Washburn, R., Mock, M., Fouet, A., and Blaser, M. (1998). Complement binding to Bacillus anthracis mutants lacking surface structures. Presented at the 98th Annual ASM General Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Read, T.D., Peterson, S.N., Tourasse, N., Baillie, L.W., Paulsen, I.T., Nelson, K.E., Tettelin, H., Fouts, D.E., Eisen, J.A., Gill, S.R., Holtzapple, E.K., Okstad, O.A., Helgason, E., Rilstone, J., Wu, M., Kolonay, J.F., Beanan, M.J., Dodson, R.J., Brinkac, L.M., Gwinn, M., DeBoy, R.T., Madpu, R., Daugherty, S.C., Durkin, A.S., Haft, D.H., Nelson, W.C., Peterson, J.D., Pop, M., Khouri, H.M., Radune, D., Benton, J.L., Mahamoud, Y., Jiang, L., Hance, I.R., Weidman, J.F., Berry, K.J., Plaut, R.D., Wolf, A.M., Watkins, K.L., Nierman, W.C., Hazen, A., Cline, R., Redmond, C., Thwaite, J.E., White, O., Salzberg, S.L., Thomason, B., Friedlander, A.M., Koehler, T.M., Hanna, P.C., Kolsto, A.B., and Fraser, C.M. (2003). The genome sequence of Bacillus anthracis Ames and comparison to closely related bacteria. Nature 423:81–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Record, B.R., and Wallis, R.G. (1956). Physicochemical examination of polyglutamic acid from Bacillus anthracis grown in vivo. Biochem. J. 63:443–447.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Ross, J.M. (1957). The pathogenesis of anthrax following the administration of spores by the respiratory route. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 73:485–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Roux, V., Bergoin, M., Lamaze, N., and Raoult, D. (1997). Reassessment of the taxonomic position of Rickettsiella grylli. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47:1255–1257.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Rozen'er, L.A. (1948). Anthrax in Humans. State publisher, Moldova, Kishinev.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Severn, M. (1976). A fatal case of pulmonary anthrax. Br. Med. J. 27:748.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Shapiro, L.B., and Galinobskoi, C.E. (1923). Anthrax case via inhalation. clin. med. 4:13–14.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Smith, H., Keppie, J., and Stanley, J.L. (1955). The chemical basis of the virulence of B. anthracis. B r. J. Exp. Pathol. 36:460–472.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Smith, H., and Stoner, H.B. (1967). Anthrax toxic complex. Fed Proc. 26:1554–1557.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Stephens, R.S., Kalman, S., Lammel, C., Fan, J., Marathe, R., Aravind, L., Mitchell, W., Olinger, L., Tatusov, R.L., Zhao, Q., Koonin, E.V., and Davis, R.W. (1998). Genome sequence of an obligate intracellular pathogen of humans: Chlamydia trachomatis. Science 282:754–759.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Suffin, S. (1978). Inhalation anthrax in a home craftsman. Human Pathol. 9:594–597.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Swartz, M.N. (2001). Recognition and management of anthrax—an update. N. Engl. J. Med. 345(22): 1621–1626.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Teacher, J.H., and Glasg, M.D. (1906). Primary intestinal anthrax in man; septicemia; haemorrhagic lepto-meningitis. Lancet 12:1306–1311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Thorne, C.B. (1993). Bacillus anthracis. In: Sonenshein, A.L., Hoch, J.A., and Losick, R. (eds.), Bacillus subtilis and Other Gram-positive Bacteria. Washington, D.C., ASM, pp. 113–124.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Vessal, K. (1975). Radiological changes in inhalational anthrax. A report of radiological and patological corellations in two cases. Clin. Radiol. 26:471–474.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Vitale, G., Pellizzari, R., Recchi, C., Napolitani, G., Mock, M., and Montecucco, C. (1998). Anthrax lethal factor cleaves the N-terminus of MAPKKs and induces tyrosine/threonine phosphorylation of MAPKs in cultured macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 248:706–711.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Walker, J.S., Lincoln, R.E., and Klein, F. (1967). Pathophysiological and biochemical changes in anthrax. Fed Proc. 26:1539–1544.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Wang, T.T., Fellows, P.F., Leighton, T.J., and Lucas, A.H. (2004). Induction of opsonic antibodies to the gamma-D-glutamic acid capsule of Bacillus anthracis by immunization with a synthetic peptide-carrier protein conjugate. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 40:231–237.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Welkos, S.L., Keener, T.J., and Gibbs, P.H. (1986). Differences in susceptibility of inbred mice to Bacillus anthracis. Infect. Immun. 51:795–800.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. WHO Model G for PCR detection of Bacillus anthracis, Standard Operating Procedure. WHO Website. (2004). http://w3.whosea.org/bct/anthrax/modelgf.htm.

  116. Witkowski, J.A. (2002). The story of anthrax from antiquity to present: a biological weapon of nature and humans. Clin. Dermatol. 20:336–242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Zaucha, G.M., Pitt, L.M., Estep, J., Ivins, B.E., and Friedlander, A.M. (1998). The pathology of experimental anthrax in rabbits exposed by inhalation and subcutaneous inoculation. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 122:982–992.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Zimmerman, B.E., and Zimmerman, D.J. (2003). Killer Germs: Microbes and Diseases that Threaten Humanity. Contemporary Books, New York, p. 219.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Zwartouw, H.T., and Smith, H. (1956). Polyglutamic acid from Bacillus anthracis grown in vivo: structure and aggressin activity. Biochem. J. 63:437–454.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge Ms. Kathryn Crockett, Dr. Alison Andrews, and Mrs. Muffarah Jahangeer for their assistance in preparing this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The National Center for Biodefense, George Mason University, Manassas, VA

    Kenneth Alibek, Catherine Lobanova & Serguei Popov

Authors
  1. Kenneth Alibek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Catherine Lobanova
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Serguei Popov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Toronto, 30 Bond Street, Room 4179W, Toronto, ON, M5B 1W8, Canada

    I. W. Fong

  2. Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, George Mason Universuty National Center for Biodefense, 10900 University Blvd., Manassas, VA, 20110, MS 1A8, USA

    Kenneth Alibek

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Alibek, K., Lobanova, C., Popov, S. (2009). Anthrax: A Disease and a Weapon. In: Fong, I.W., Alibek, K. (eds) Bioterrorism and Infectious Agents: A New Dilemma for the 21st Century. Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1266-4_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1266-4_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-1265-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-1266-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation