Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abuissa H, Jones PG, Marso SP, O’Keefe JH Jr, 2005, Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers for prevention of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol. 46: 821–826
Aguilera G, Kapur S, Feuillan P, Sunar-Akbasak B, Bathia AJ, 1994, Developmental changes in angiotensin II receptor subtypes and AT1 receptor mRNA in rat kidney. Kidney Intl. 46: 973–979
Albu JB, Kovera AJ, Johnson JA, 2000. Fat distribution in health and obesity. Ann N.Y. Acad Sci. 904: 491–501
Alexander CM, Landsman PB, Teutsch SM, Haffner SM, 2003, NCEP-Defined Metabolic Syndrome, Diabetes, and Prevalence of coronary artery disease among NHANES III participants age 50 years and older. Diabetes. 52: 1210–1214
Allen AM, Zhuo JL, 1999, Mendelsohn FAO. Localization of angiotensin II AT1 and AT2 receptors. J Am Soc Nephrol. 10: S23–S29
Aneja A, El-Atat F, McFarlane SI, Sowers JR, 2004, Hypertension and obesity. Recent Prog Horm Res. 59: 169–205
Avogaro P, Crepaldi G, Enzi G, Tiengo A, 1967, Associazione di hiperlipidemia diabete mellito e obesita di medio grado. Acta Diabetol Lat. 4: 36–41
Bays H, Mandarino L, De Fronzo R, 2004, Role of the adipocyte, free fatty acids and ectopic fat in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Peroxisomal proliferators-activated receptor agonists provide a rationale therapeutic approach. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 89: 463–478
Bergman RN, Van Citters GW, Mittelman SD, et al 2001, Central role of the adipocyte in the Metabolic Syndrome. J Investig Med. 49: 119–126
Berk BC, Corson MA, 1999, Angiotensin II signal transduction in vascular smooth muscle: role of tyrosine kinases. Circ Res. 80: 607–616
Berry C, Touyz R, Dominiczak AF, Webb RC, Johns DG, 2001, Angiotensin receptors: signaling, vascular pathophysiology, and interactions with ceramide. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 281: H2337–H2365
Blundell T, Sibanda BLK, Pearl L, 1983, Three dimensional structure, specificity and catalytic mechanism of renin. Nature. 304: 273–275
Booz GW, Baker KM, 1996, Role of type 1 and type 2 angiotensin receptors in angiotensin II – induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Hypertension. 28: 635–640
Brink M, Welen J, Delafontaine P, 1996, Angiotensin II causes weight loss and decreases Insulin-Like Growth Factor in rats through a pressor-independent mechanism. J Clin Invest. 97: 2509–2516
Bunning P, Holmquist B, Riordan JF, 1983, Substrate, specificity and kinetic characteristics of angiotensin converting enzyme. Biochemistry. 22: 103–110
Burson JM, Aguilera G, Gross KW, Sigmund CD, 1994, Differential expression of angiotensin receptor 1A and 1B in mouse. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 267: E260–E267
Carey RM, Siragy HM, 2003, Newly recognized components of the Renin-Angiotensin System: Potential Roles in cardiovascular and renal regulation. Endocrine Reviews. 24: 261–271
Carlsson PO, Berne C, Jansson L, 1998, Angiotensin II and the endocrine pancreas: effects on islet blood flow and insulin secretion in rats. Diabetologia. 41: 127–133
Cassis LA, 1993, Role of angiotensin II in brown adipose thermogenesis during cold acclimation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 265: E680–E685
Cassis LA, English VL, Bharadwaj K, Boustany CM, 2004, Differential effects of local versus systemic angiotensin II in the regulation of leptin release from adipocytes. Endocrinology. 145: 169–174
Cassis LA, Marshall DE, Fettinger MJ, Rosenbluth B, Lodder RA, 1998, Mechanisms contributing to angiotensin II regulation of body weight. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 274: 867–876
Chu KY, Lau T, Carlsson P, Leung PS, 2006, Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade improves β-cell function and glucose tolerance in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 55: 367–374
Crackower MA, Sarao R, Oudit GY, et al 2002, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is an essential regulator of heart function. Nature. 417: 822–828
Crandall DL, Armellino DC, Busler DE, Mc Hendry-Rinde B, Kral JG, 1999, Angiotensin II receptor in human preadipocytes: role in cell cycle regulation. Endocrinology. 140: 154–158
Crandall DL, Herzlinger HE, Saunders BD, Armellino DC, Kral JG, 1994, Distribution of angiotensin receptors in rat and human adipocytes. J Lipid Res. 35: 1378–1385
Dickson ME, Sigmund CD, 2006, Genetic basis of hypertension: revisiting Angiotensinogen. Hypertension. 48: 14–20
Duncan GE, Sierra ML, Zhou XH, 2004, Prevalence and trends of a Metabolic Syndrome phenotype among U.S. adolescents, 1999–2000. Diabetes Care. 27: 2438–2443
Engeli S, Negrel R, Sharma AM, 2000, Physiology of the adipose tissue renin-angiotensin system. Hypertension. 35: 1270–1277
Fernández-Real JM, Ricart W, 2003, Insulin resistance and chronic cardiovascular inflammatory syndrome. Endocrine Reviews. 24: 278–301
Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, et al 2002, Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000. JAMA. 288: 1723–1727
Ford ES, 2005, Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome defined by the International Diabetes Federation among adults in the US. Diabetes Care. 28: 2745–2749
Frederich RC, Kahn BB, Peach MJ, Flier JS, 1992, Tissue-specific nutritional regulation of angiotensinogen in adipose tissue. Hypertension. 19: 339–344
Giacchetti G, Sechi LA, Rilli S, Carey RM, 2005, The renin angiotensin-aldosterone system, glucose metabolism and diabetes. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 16 (3): 120–126
Goldstein BJ, Scalia R, 2004, Adiponectin: A novel Adipokyne linking adipocytes and vascular function. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 89: 2563–2568
Goodpaster BH, Krishnaswami S, Harris TB, et al 2005, Obesity, regional body fat distribution, and the Metabolic Syndrome in older men and women. Arch Intern Med. 165: 777–783
Goodpaster BH, Thaete FL, Kelley DE, 2000, Thigh adipose tissue distribution is associated with insulin resistance in obesity and in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr. 71: 885–892
Govindarajan G, Eble DM, Lucchesi PA, Samarel AM, 2000, Focal adhesion kinase is involved in angiotensin II-mediated protein synthesis in cultured smooth vascular cells. Circ Res. 87: 710–716
Griendling KK, Murphy TJ, Alexander RW, 1993, Molecular Biology of the rennin-angiotensin system. Circulation. 87: 1816–1828
Hansson L, Lindholm LH, Niskanen L, et al 1999, Effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition compared with conventional therapy on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension: the Captopril Prevention Project (CAPP) randomized trial. Lancet. 353: 611–6
Hardie DG, 2004, The AMP-activated protein kinase pathway - New players upstream and downstream. J Cell Sci. 117: 5479–5487
Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators, 2000, Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 342: 145–153
Hirochi M, Hayashida W, Akishita M, et al 1999, Stimulation of different subtypes of angiotensin II receptors, AT1 and AT2 receptors, regulates STAT activation by negative cross talk. Circ Res. 84: 876–882
Hjorth SA, Schambye HT, Greenlee WJ, Schwartz TW, 1994, Identification of peptide binding residues in the extracellular domains of the AT1 receptor. J Biol Chem. 269: 30953–30959
Horiuchi M, Hayashida W, Kambe T, Yamada T, Dzau VJ, 1997, Angiotensin type 2 receptor dephosphorylates Bcl-2 by activating mitogen-activating protein kinase phosphatase-1 and induces apoptosis. J Biol Chem. 272: 19022–19026
Hotamisligil GS, Spiegelman BM, 1994, Tumor necrosis factor a: a key component of the obesity-diabetes link. Diabetes. 43: 1271–1278
Huang XC, Richards EM, Sumners C, 1996, Mitogen-activated protein kinases in rat brain neuronal cultures are activated by angiotensin II type 1 receptors and inhibited by angiotensin II type 2 receptors. J Biol Chem. 271: 15635–15641
James PT, Leach R, Kalamara E, Shayeghi M, 2001, The Worldwide obesity epidemic. Obes Res. 9: 228S–233S
Jones BH, Stanridge MK, Moustaid N, 1997, Angiotensin II increased lipogenesis in 3T3-L1 and human adipose cells. Endocrinology. 138: 1512–1519
Julius S, Kjeldsen SE Webel, M, et al 2004, Outcomes in hypertensives patients at high risk of cardiovascular risk treated with regimens based on valsartan and amlodipine: the VALUE randomized trial. Lancet. 363: 2022–2231
Kadowaki T, Yamauchi T, Kubota N, Hara K, Ueki K, Tobe K, 2006 Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in insulin resistance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Invest. 116: 1784–1792
Karlsson C, Lindell K, Ottosson M, Sjostrom L, Carlsson B, Carlsson MS, 1998, Human adipose tissue expresses angiotensinogen and enzymes required for its conversion to Angiotensin II. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 83: 3925–3929
Ko SH, Hong OK, Kim JW, Ahn YB, Song KH, Cha BY, Son HY, Kim MJ, Jeong IK, Yoon KH, 2006, High glucose increases extracellular matrix production in pancreatic stellate cells by activating the renin-angiotensin system. J Cell Biochem. 98: 343–55
Konishi H, Kuroda S, Inada Y, Fujisawa Y, 1994, Novel subtype of human angiotensin II type 1 receptor: cDNA cloning and expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 199: 467–474
Konoshita T, et al 2006, Tissue gene expression of renin-angiotensin system in human type 2 diabetic nephropathy. Diabetes Care. 29: 848–52
Kristiansen OP, Mandrup-Poulse T, 2005, Interleukin-6 and Diabetes: The good, the bad, or the indifferent? Diabetes. 54 (Suppl 2): S114–S124
Krssak M, Falk Petersen K, Dresner A, et al 1999, Intramyocellular lipid concentrations are correlated with insulin sensitivity in humans: a 1H NMR spectroscopy study. Diabetologia. 42: 113–116
Lam KY, Leung PS, 2002, Regulation and expression of a rennin-angiotensin system in human pancreas and pancreatic endocrine tumors. Eur J Endocrinol, 146: 567–572
Lau T, Carlsson PO, Leung PS, 2004, Evidence for a local angiotensin system and dose-dependent inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin release by angiotensin II in isolated pancreatic islets. Diabetologia. 47: 240–248
Lastra G, Manrique C, Sowers, JR, 2006, Obesity and chronic kidney disease: The weight of the evidence. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 13: 365–373
Leung PS, Carlsson PO, 2001, Tissue renin-angiotensin system: its expression, localization, regulation and potential role in the pancreas. J Mol Endocrinol. 26: 155–164
Leung PS, Chappell MC, 2003, A local pancreatic renin-angiotensin system: endocrine and exocrine roles. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 35: 838–846
Licata G, Scaglione R, Ganguzza A, et al 1994, Central obesity and hypertension. Relationship between fasting serum insulin, plasma renin activity, and diastolic blood pressure in young obese subjects. Am J Hypertens. 7: 314–320
Lorenzo O, Ruiz-Ortega M, Suzuki Y, et al 2002, Angiotensin III Activates Nuclear Transcription Factor-kB in Cultured Mesangial Cells Mainly via AT2 Receptors: Studies with AT1 Receptor-Knockout Mice. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 13: 1162
Lorenzo, C, Serrano-Rios M, Martinez-Larrad MT, et al 2006, Geographic variations of the International Diabetes Federation anf the National Cholesterol Education Program – Adult Treatment Panel III Definitions of the metabolic syndrome in nondiabetic subjects. Diabetes Care. 29: 685–691
Lupi et al 2006, The direct effects of the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, zofenoprilat and enalaprilat, on isolated human pancreatic islets. Eur J of Endocrinol. 154: 355–361
Madrid MI, Garcia-Duran M, Tornel J, De Gasparo M, Fenoy FJ, 1997, Effect of interactions between nitric oxide and angiotensin II on pressure natriuresis. Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol. 273: R1676–R1682
Manrique C, Lastra G. Sowers JR, 2005, Hypertension and the Cardiometabolic Syndrome. Journal of Clinical Hypertension. 7: 471–476
Massiera F, Bloch-Faure M, Ceiler D, et al 2001, Adipose angiotensinogen is involved in adipose tissue growth and blood pressure regulation. FASEB J. 15: 2727–2729
Navar LG, 2004, The intrarenal renin-angiotensin system in hypertension. Kidney Intl. 65: 1522–1532
Nguyen G, Bouzhir L, Delarue F, Rondeau E, Giller T, Sraer JD, 2002, Pivotal role of the renin/Prorenin receptor in Angiotensin II production and cellular responses to Renin. J Clin Invest. 109: 1417–1427
Nickenig G, Harrison DG, 2002, The AT1-type angiotensin receptor in oxidative stress and atherogenesis. Part I: Oxidative stress and atherogenesis. Circulation. 105: 393–396
Nickenig G, Ostergren J, Struijke-Boudier H, 2006, Clinical evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of angiotensin receptor blockers. JRAAS. 7: S1–S7
Ouchi N, Ohishi M, Kihara S, et al 2003, Association of hypoadiponectinemia with impaired vasoreactivity. Journal of Hypertension. 42: 231–234
Ozono R, Wang ZQ, Moore AF, Inagami T, Siragy HM, Carey RM, 1997, Expression of the subtype 2 angiotensin (AT2) receptor protein in rat kidney. Hypertension. 30: 1238–1246
Pagano PJ, Chanock SJ, Siwik DA, Colucci WS, Clark JK, 1998, Angiotensin II induces p67phox mRNA expression and NADPH oxidase superoxide generation in rabbit aortic adventitial fibroblasts. Hypertension. 32: 331–337
Park YW, Zhu S, Palaniappan L, Heshka S, Carnethon MR, Heymsfield SB, 2003, The metabolic syndrome: Prevalence and risk factor findings in the US population from the third national health and nutrition examination survey, 1988 1994. Arch Int Med. 163: 427–436
Paula RD, Lima CV, Khosla MC, 1995, Angiotensin (1–7) potentiates hypotensive effect of bradykinin in conscious rats. Hypertension. 26: 1154–1159
Peach MJ, 1977, Renin-angiotensin system: Biochemistry and mechanisms of action. Physiol Rev. 57: 313–370
Pickup JC, 2004, Inflammation and activated innate immunity in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 27: 813–823
Pittas AG, Joseph NA, Greenberg AS, 2004, Adipocytokines and insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 89: 447–452
Pueyo ME, Gonzalez W, Nicoletti A, Savoie F, Arnal J, Michel J, 2000, Angiotensin II stimulates endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule – 1 via nuclear factor κB activation induced by intracellular oxidative stress. Arterioscler thromb Vasc Biol. 20: 645–654
Ran J, Hirano T, Adachi M, 2004, Angiotensin II type 1 receptor b locker ameliorates overproduction and accumulation of triglyceride in the liver of Zucker fatty rats. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 287: E227–E232
Ravussin E, Smith SR, 2002, Increased fat intake, impaired fat oxidation, and failure of fat cell proliferation result in ectopic fat storage, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann N.Y. Acad Sci. 967: 363–378
Rodriguez-Vita J, Sanchez-Lopez E, Esteban V, Ruperez M, Egido J, Ruiz-Ortega M, 2005, Angiotensin II activates the Smad pathway in vascular smooth muscle cells by a transforming growth factor-beta-independent mechanism. Circulation. 111: 2509–2517
Ruiz-Ortega M, Lorenzo O, Ruperez M, et al 2001, Systemic infusion of angiotensin II into normal rats activates nuclear factor κ-B and AP-1 in the kidney. Role of AT1 and AT2 receptors. Am J Pathol. 158: 1743–175
Ruiz-Ortega M, Lorenzo O, Ruperez M, Kong S, Wittig B, Egido J, 2000, Angiotensin II activates nuclear transcription factor kB through AT1 and At2 in vascular smooth cells: molecular mechanisms. Circ Res. 86: 1266–1272
Sadoshima J, 2000, Cytokine actions of angiotensin II. Circ Res. 86: 1187–1189
Safonova I, Aubert J, Negrel R, Ailhaud G, 1997, Regulation by fatty acids of angiotensinogen gene expression in preadipose cells. Biochem J. 322 (Pt 1): 235–239
Saward L, Zahradka P, 1997, Angiotensin II activates phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in vascular smooth cells. Circ Res. 81: 249–25
Schneider BS, Faust IM, Hemmes R, Hirsch J, 1981, Effects of altered adipose tissue morphology on plasma insulin levels in the rat. Am J Physiol. 240: E358–E362
Senn JJ, Klover PJ, Nowak IA, et al 2003, Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling – 3 (SOCS-3), a potential mediator of Interleukin-6-dependent insulin resistance in hepatocytes. J Biol Chem. 278: 13740–13746
Sowers JR, 2002, Hypertension, angiotensin II and oxidative stress. N Engl J Med. 346: 1999–2001
Stein CJ, Colditz GA, 2004, The epidemic of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 89: 2522–2525
Tahmasebi M, Puddefoot JR, Inwang ER, et al 1999, The tissue renin-angiotensin system in human pancreas. J Endocrinol. 161: 317–322
The DREAM Trial Investigators, 2006, Effect of ramipril on the incidence of diabetes. N Engl J Med. 355: 1551–62
Tikellis C, Cooper ME, Thomas MC, 2006, Role of the renin-angiotensin system in the endocrine pancreas: implications for the development of diabetes. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 38: 737–51
Tipnis SR, Hooper NM, Hyde R, Karran E, Christie G, Turner AJ, 2000, A human homolog of angiotensin-converting enzyme. Cloning and functional expression as a captopril-insensitive carboxypeptidase. J Biol. Chem. 275: 33238–33243
Tsutsumi Y, Matsubara H, Masaki H, et al 1999, Angiotensin II type 2 receptor overexpression activates the vascular kynin system and causes vasodilatation. J Clin Invest. 104: 925–935
Tuck ML, Sowers J, Dornfield L, Kledzik G, Maxwell M, 1981, The effect of weight reduction on blood pressure plasma renin activity and aldosterone levels in obese patients. N Eng J Med. 304: 930–933
Ushio-Fukai M, Alexander W, 2004, Reactive oxygen species as mediators of angiogenesis signaling: Role of NADPH oxidase. Mol Cell Biochem 264: 85–97
Ushio-Fukai M, Tabg Y, Fukai T, et al 2002, Novel role of gp91phox containing NADPH oxidase in vascular endothelial growth factor induced signaling and angiogenesis. Circ Res. 91: 1160–1167
Van HV, Ariapart P, Hoffstedt J, Lundkvist I, Bringman S, Arner P, 2000, Increased adipose angiotensinogen gene expression in human obesity. Obes Res. 8: 337–341
Vidotti, DB, Casarinin DE, Cristovam PC, Leite CA, Boim MA, 2004, High glucose concentration stimulates renin activity and angiotensin II generation in mesangial cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 286: F1039–F1045
Wang HD, Hope SK, Du Y, Quinn MT, Cayatte AJ, Cohen RA, 1999, Paracrine role of adventitial superoxide anion in spontaneous tone in the isolated rat aorta in angiotensin II – induced hypertension. Hypertension. 33: 1225–1232
Watanabe, T, Thomas A, Barker CB, 2005, Angiotensin II and the endothelium: Diverse signals and effects. Hypertension. 45: 163–169
Yusuf S, Ostergren JB Gerstein HC, et al 2005, Candesartan in Heart Failure-Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and Morbidity Program Investigators. Effects of candesartan on the development of a new diagnosis of diabetes mellitus in patients with heart failure. Circulation. 112: 48–53
Zuo L Ushio-Fukai M, Hilenski LL, Alexander RW, 2004, Microtubules regulate angiotensin II type 1 receptor and Rac1 localization in caveolae/lipid rafts: role in redox signaling. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 24: 1223–1228
Zuo L, Ushio-Fukai M, Ikeda S, Hilenski L, Patrushev N, Alexander RW, 2005, Caveolin 1 is Essential for Activation of Rac-1 and NADPH oxidase After Angiotensin II Type 1 receptor stimulation in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: Role in Redox Signaling and Vascular Hyperthophy. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 25: 1824–1830
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2007 Springer
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lastra, G., Manrique, C., Sowers, J.R. (2007). Renin-Angiotensin System Proteases and the Cardiometabolic Syndrome: Pathophysiological, Clinical and Therapeutic Implications. In: Leung, P.S. (eds) Frontiers in Research of the Renin-Angiotensin System on Human Disease. Proteases in Biology and Disease, vol 7. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6372-5_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6372-5_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-6371-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-6372-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)