Background

WD40 proteins are also called WD40 domain-containing proteins, and they constitute a large gene family among eukaryote species [1]. WD40 is named from the WD dipeptide of its conserved domain and defined that every single repeat contains 44–60 amino acids, and there are a GH dipeptide and a WD dipeptide at N- and C-terminals, respectively [2]. Bovine β-transducin is the first identified WD40 protein [3], and its crystal structure possesses a seven-bladed β-propeller fold formed by repeats [4,5,6]. A strong hydrogen bond network produced by this WD domain structure improves the stability of WD40 proteins [7]. WD40 proteins exist extensively in all eukaryotes, but they are rarely found in prokaryotic proteomes, though a WD40 protein named PkwA was identified in a prokaryote in 1996 [8]. Only a small proportion of archaea proteomes (27 of 134) and bacterial proteomes (466 of 1679) have WD40 proteins [9].

The WD40 domain is slightly conservative in terms of protein sequence, thus, precisely predicting the number of WD40 repeats in a WD40 protein is difficult. The prevailing prediction methods for the analysis and identification of a WD40 domain are too conservative, for instance, the structural information of DNA damage binding protein 1 (DDB1) [10] and Sro7 [11] comprises seven or multiples of seven blades, but only some repeats can be identified through sequence-based classification methods in the prediction of their structures.

WD40 proteins are usually regarded as the scaffold of protein–protein interactions [12]. The number of WD40 repeats that form a β-propeller fold ranges from 5 to 8, more likely 7 [13, 14]. WD40 proteins have complex structures and functions; they can interact with diverse proteins in various ways and participate in extensive biological regulatory processes, such as DNA replication, damage response, histone recognition, transcriptional regulation, post-translational modification, signal transduction, protein degradation, and apoptosis [15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24].

The WD40 protein family has been systematically identified in plant species, humans, silkworms, and prokaryotes [9, 25, 26]. It is reported that there were 237 WD40s in thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana), 191 WD40s in cucumber (Cucumis sativus), 225 WD40s in foxtail millet (Setaria italica), and 579 WD40s in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), respectively. [27,28,29,30]. In the monocotyledonous model plant rice (Oryza sativa), 200 WD40 family members are clustered into 5 groups and classified into 11 subfamilies based on their domain compositions [31]. Although the WD40 family has been studied in many plant species, it has yet to be investigated in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), which is an important cereal crop worldwide. Wheat is rich in proteins, carbohydrates, and minerals. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), wheat production is predicted to account for 28.46% of the global cereal production (2.59 billion tons) by 2017/2018 [32]. Bread wheat can strongly adapt to different climates, and one of the key factors of this characteristic is the allohexaploid genome structure, which originates from two polyploidization events [33]. Allotetraploid T. turgidum (AABB), the ancestor of T. turgidum ssp. durum, is initially generated from the cross between T. urartu (AA) and Aegilops speltoides (SS) [34]. T. turgidum (AABB) subsequently crossed with A. tauschii (DD), and the ancestral allohexaploid T. aestivum (AABBDD) was finally obtained [33,34,35,36,37,38,39]. As a kind of allohexaploid plant species with 21 chromosomes, bread wheat has three homologous subgenomes (A, B, and D), and each subgenome contains seven chromosomes, but it genetically behaves like a diploid species [40]. The large and repetitive genome of wheat makes it very difficult to analyze the gene family on the basis of the wheat genome.

In this work, we identified TaWD40 proteins in wheat at a genome-wide level, including their number, chromosomal distribution, gene structure, gene duplication, and evolutionary relationship of family members. We analyzed the syntenic relationships of WD40 proteins between wheat and rice. We also examined the tissue-specific expression and expression profiles of TaWD40s under biotic and abiotic stresses by using the public RNA-seq data. Our qRT-PCR results indicated the possible important roles of some TaWD40s during seed development. All above-mentioned results provided a basis for further functional characterization of WD40 proteins in wheat.

Results

Identification of WD40 proteins in wheat

To identify the TaWD40s in wheat, the hmmsearch program (HMMER3.0 package) was performed against the protein databases (IWGSC RefSeq v1.0) by using the hidden Markov model (HMM) profiles of the WD40 domain (PF00400) as queries [41, 42]. After the redundant transcripts were removed, all of the candidates were examined via the HMMER website [43] and SMART website [44] to search for the WD40 domain. All of the published TaWD40 proteins on NCBI were screened, and these proteins were included in our result. A total of 743 WD40 proteins were obtained in wheat. For convenience, their corresponding genes were numbered from TaWD40–1 to TaWD40–743 based on their positions located on 21 chromosomes (Additional file 1: Table S1), from the top to the bottom, from 1 to 7, and in the order of A, B, and D [45].

In silico analysis revealed that TaWD40s varied largely in length and physicochemical properties. Their lengths ranged from 154 to 3576 amino acid residues. In terms of physicochemical properties (Additional file 1: Table S1), EXPASY analysis indicated that the TaWD40 protein sequences differed greatly in isoelectric point (pI, ranging from 4.23 to 10.99) and molecular weight (MW, 16.9–397.2 kDa).

Chromosomal distribution and gene structure

The position of each TaWD40 was determined by mapping its sequence to the corresponding chromosome of wheat cv. Chinese Spring (IWGSC RefSeq v1.0) via the BLAST program. The 743 TaWD40s were assigned to 21 wheat chromosomes. The positions of TaWD40s (Fig. 1) represented the relative locations in the genome instead of their real positions, considering that the length of each gap was directly set to 100 bp during sequence assembly. TaWD40s were extensively and unevenly distributed on the chromosomes. Subgenomes A, B, and D had 240, 261, and 242 TaWD40s, respectively. Each of chromosomes 3B and 7B had 49 genes, which had the largest number of TaWD40s. By contrast, chromosomes 6A and 6D had the least number of TaWD40s, and each had 23 genes (Fig. 1a). The distributions of TaWD40s showed that some genes accumulated on particular chromosomes. Numerous TaWD40s were distributed at the bottom of chromosomes, especially in 4A, 7A, 7B, 5D, and 7D. Relatively high densities were also detected at the top of chromosomes 4B and 4D. While relatively low densities of TaWD40s were mostly found at the top of chromosomes 6B, 1D, and 6D. Previous studies also demonstrated the widespread and uneven distribution features of WD40s on chromosomes in animals and plants [25, 26, 28, 29, 31].

Fig. 1
figure 1

Genomic distributions of 743 TaWD40s on 21 wheat chromosomes. (a) Numbers of TaWD40s on each wheat chromosome. (b) “TaWD40 distribution map” on 21 wheat chromosomes. Tandemly duplicated genes are marked by red boxes. The scale bar is shown in megabase (Mb). The picture was drawn by MapInspect. (c) Segmentally duplicated TaWD40s in wheat subgenomes A, B, and D. Arabic numerals represent the gene numbers of TaWD40s, and the different color lines indicate the synteny of WD40. The picture was drawn with Circos

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To gain insights into the structures of TaWD40s, we analyzed their exon and intron organizations. The number of exons and introns in TaWD40s widely varied. The maximum number of exons contained in TaWD40s was 39 (38 introns), but only 1 exon and no intron existed in some genes. Among the TaWD40s, the genes containing 1 and 9 exons had the maximum number of members (59 genes), and 7–14 exons were present in about half of TaWD40s (Additional file 2: Figure S1, Additional file 1: Table S1).

Gene duplication and genome synteny

Tandem and segmental duplication are key factors in gene family evolution to generate new gene members. In comparison with genomes in other grasses, inter- and intra-chromosomal duplications in wheat are more commonly detected through interspecific whole-genome analysis [33]. Thus, we investigated the segmental and tandem duplication events in the WD40 gene family in wheat. In our study, 39 pairs of genes among 743 TaWD40s were identified as tandem duplications (Fig. 1b, Additional file 1: Table S2), and 46 pairs of genes might be related to segmental duplication events (Fig. 1c, Additional file 1: Table S3). Roughly one-to-one correspondences of these tandem duplication and segmental duplication events were observed in wheat A, B, and D subgenomes, that is, tandem duplication or segmental duplication events often occurred at the same locations in the three subgenomes of wheat.

The substitution rate of nonsynonymous (Ka) and synonymous (Ks) is the basis for evaluating the positive selection pressure of duplication events, where Ka/Ks = 1 denoted neutral selection, Ka/Ks < 1 indicated purifying selection, and Ka/Ks > 1 referred to positive selection. KaKs Calculator 2.0 was used to calculate Ka/Ks of duplicated TaWD40s. Ka/Ks of tandem duplications ranged from 0.03 to 1.22, and the mean value was 0.43, but the ratio of TaWD40–273/TaWD40–274 was greater than 1 (Additional file 1: Table S2). Ka/Ks of 46 pairs of segmental duplication genes varied from 0.028 to 1.66, and the average was 0.39 (Additional file 1: Table S3). TaWD40–463/TaWD40–492, TaWD40–364/TaWD40–443, and TaWD40–547/TaWD40–628 had Ka/Ks > 1, that is, 1.10571, 1.32411, and 1.66471, respectively. Therefore, duplication events played a pivotal role in the evolution of TaWD40s.

The syntenic relationships of WD40s between wheat and rice were analyzed to further study the evolution of WD40s. A total of 123 OsWD40s were identified to have synteny with TaWD40s (Fig. 2, Additional file 1: Table S4). The sequence similarities between the identified TaWD40s, OsWD40s, and AtWD40s were preliminarily examined by BLATP to identify the orthologous genes of TaWD40s in rice and Arabidopsis (Additional file 1: Table S5). For example, TaWD40–123, TaWD40–352, and TaWD40–605 are identified as TaGB1 and orthologous to OsWD40–80 and At4G34460.1. TaWD40–188 and TaWD40–439 are orthologous to OsWD40–50, which are identified as TaTTG1 [46].

Fig. 2
figure 2

Syntenic relationships of WD40s between wheat (Ta) and rice (Os). The positions of all of the WD40s are depicted in the three subgenomes of wheat (red bands of A subgenome, blue bands of B subgenome, and green bands of D subgenome), rice (yellow bands). The Arabic numerals represent the gene numbers of WD40 in wheat and rice. The different color lines indicate the synteny of WD40 among wheat and rice. The picture was drawn with Circos

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Classification and phylogenetic analysis of wheat WD40 proteins

The protein sequences of the 743 identified TaWD40s were used to construct a phylogenetic tree via the neighbor-joining (N-J) method to analyze the evolutionary relationships of the WD40 family in wheat. In Fig. 3, the TaWD40s were divided into 5 major distinct clusters (Clusters I–V) containing 124, 173, 137, 89, and 220 proteins, respectively. The 743 TaWD40s were grouped into 11 subfamilies based on their domain compositions (Additional file 1: Table S1). The 478 TaWD40s containing only WD40 domains were classified as subfamily A. The 265 remaining TaWD40s comprising other additional domains were grouped into subfamilies B–K (Table 1).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Phylogenetic classification of TaWD40 proteins. The phylogenetic tree was drawn with MEGA7 by using the neighbor-joining method with 1000 bootstrap replicates. All 743 TaWD40s were grouped into 5 clusters (Cluster I-V)

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Table 1 Domain composition and number of members of 11 subfamilies of 743 TaWD40s
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Spatial and temporal expression profiles of TaWD40s

WD40 proteins have complicated structures and diverse functions, and studying their functions is difficult because of the allopolyploid characters of bread wheat. Their gene expression profile could provide useful information to reveal gene functions. The public RNA-seq data obtained from the expVIP website were used to analyze the spatial and temporal expression profiles of TaWD40s in wheat. The expression profiles covered 15 tissues during the entire life cycle of wheat (cv. Chinese Spring).

The hierarchical cluster figure was generated by using the log2 of transcript per million (TPM) values of the 743 TaWD40s. The tissue expression profiles of TaWD40s were clustered into 6 groups (Groups I–VI) based on their expression characteristics (Fig. 4, Additional file 1: Table S6). Group I consisted of 164 genes, and the average expression levels in TPM ranged from 3.62 to 14.29 (average value 6.51). Group II comprised 101 genes with relatively high expression levels, and their average expression levels varied from 8.67 to 25.19 (average value 13.44). Group III was composed of 198 genes with low expression levels, and their average expression levels ranged from 1.61 to 6.29 (average value 3.58). Group IV included 232 genes that were barely expressed in almost all of the tested tissues, and their average value was 0.79. Group V had 18 genes with relatively low expression levels in most tissues except in some individual tissues. Group VI contained the 30 remaining genes with high expression levels in all of the 15 tissues, and their expression levels ranged from 24.80 to 121.89 with an average value of 44.73.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Spatial and temporal expression profiles of TaWD40. The heatmap was generated on the basis of the RNA-seq data and drawn with the R program. The color scale is shown at the upper left of the figure represents Log2 of transcript per million (TPM). Higher expression levels are shown in red, and lower expression levels are denoted in blue

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The expression profiles of TaWD40s are similar to OsWD40s [31], and multiple expression characteristics demonstrate the diverse functions of some TaWD40s in wheat growth and development. For example, TaWD40–289 belonging to Group I was remarkably and highly expressed in roots and stems but was relatively weakly expressed in other tissues, implying that this gene might play an important role in root and stem development. Group IV members, such as TaWD40–21, TaWD40–263, and TaWD40–522 (homologous genes on subgenomes A, B, and D), almost had no expression in all of the 15 analyzed tissues, and they might participate in some special physiological and biological processes under certain conditions. Group VI genes, such as TaWD40–82, TaWD40–332, and TaWD40–589 (homologous genes on subgenomes A, B, and D), which were identified as guanine nucleotide-binding protein beta subunit-like genes, might perform housekeeping functions and had the highest average expression levels in all of the tissues among 743 analyzed genes.

Expression profiles of TaWD40s under biotic and abiotic stresses

The RNA-seq data were downloaded from the expVIP website based on IWGSC 1.0 annotation. The differential expression of TaWD40s under biotic stresses (powdery mildew pathogen and stripe rust pathogen infection) and abiotic stresses (cold, heat and drought) was analyzed, and their MA plots were drawn (Additional file 2: Figure S2, Additional file 1: Table S7). The upregulated and downregulated TaWD40s were also counted under different stresses (Table 2). Our results revealed 92 significantly upregulated TaWD40s and 73 significantly downregulated TaWD40s in wheat shoots at the three-leaf stage under cold stress. Additionally, the number of differentially expressed TaWD40s under heat stress was more than that under drought stress. More TaWD40s were downregulated compared with the upregulated ones. The number of stress-responsive TaWD40s under 6 h of treatment was more than that under 1 h of treatment. Furthermore, the responses of TaWD40s to biotic stresses mainly occurred at the early stage of pathogen infection, and the number of differentially expressed genes gradually decreased as time progressed. The number of the upregulated TaWD40s exposed to powdery mildew pathogen E09 was higher than that of the upregulated TaWD40s infected by stripe rust pathogen CYR31.

Table 2 Number of stress-responsive TaWD40s under different treatment conditions
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Expression profiles of TaWD40s during seed development

Some WD40s are essential for seed development; for instance, TTG1 participates in the pigmentation of testa and the development of trichomes in A. thaliana [47, 48] and sorghum [49]. The tissue expression of TaWD40s indicates that many genes are specifically expressed in spikes and grains, suggesting their important roles in wheat seed development. Hence, 26 TaWD40s were randomly selected from the 5 distinct clusters of the phylogenetic tree to analyze their expression characteristics during wheat seed development through qRT-PCR.

We sampled the developing seeds every 4 days after anthesis for a total of 7 sampling times. Among the 26 selected TaWD40s (Fig. 5, Additional file 2: Figure S3, Additional file 1: Table S8), the expression levels of TaWD40–129 and TaWD40–150 increased rapidly during the early stages of seed development and gradually decreased with seed maturity. Furthermore, 11 TaWD40s (TaWD40–1, TaWD40–18, TaWD40–26, TaWD40–39, TaWD40–78, TaWD40–135, TaWD40–162, TaWD40–183, TaWD40–186, TaWD40–222, and TaWD40–450) shared the same expression pattern; that is, their expression levels were downregulated at the early stages of seed development, but their expression levels increased gradually 12 days after anthesis. The expression levels of TaWD40–38, TaWD40–48, TaWD40–73, TaWD40–74, TaWD40–81, TaWD40–83, TaWD40–85, TaWD40–148, TaWD40–185, TaWD40–223, and TaWD40–669 continually decreased from relatively high expression levels (4 days after anthesis) during wheat seed development. The expression levels of TaWD40–7 and TaWD40–86 fluctuated and had no obvious expression trends.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Expression profiles of 26 selected TaWD40s in the seed development of T. aestivum L. cv. Chinese Spring. Y-axis, relative expression levels; X-axis, days after anthesis. The error bars represent standard deviation (S.D.) calculated from three replications. The gene expression levels are normalized to the internal control of TaActin

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Discussion

Expansions of WD40s in wheat

WD40 family expansion is a result of tandem and segmental duplications. In our study, tandem duplications led to 5.2% (39 of 743) of newly produced genes, and segmental duplication events contributed to 6.2% (46 of 743) of the newly generated genes. Different subfamilies had various effects on wheat gene expansion events. In particular, tandem duplications mainly originated from subfamily A (41%, 16 of 39) and subfamily G (46%, 18 of 39) grouped in Cluster II. Segmental duplication gene pairs were mainly from subfamily A (65%, 30 of 46). The homologous genes of TaWD40–103 and TaWD40–135 located on subgenome A were TaWD40–627 and TaWD40–640 on subgenome D, and these two pairs of genes were identified as segmental duplication genes belonging to subfamilies A and B, respectively. The N-terminals of TaWD40–103 and TaWD40–627 had similar multiple mutations, and the LisH domain could not be formed. As such, they were grouped into subfamily A. Thus, duplication and homologous recombination were the major primary driving forces of the evolution of the TaWD40 family. Allopolyploidy and high-level gene duplication (inter and intra-chromosomal duplications) provided a large genome with numerous functional genes for the adaptation of wheat in complicated various environments.

Expression profile analysis of TaWD40s

Tissue expression profile analysis revealed that many TaWD40s were differentially expressed in spike and seed development (Fig. 4), indicating that TaWD40s might participate in seed development. TaWD40–161 was identified as the orthologous protein of Arabidopsis JINGUBANG, which is a negative regulator of pollen germination [50]. TaWD40–161 was specifically and highly expressed in spikes during anthesis but was almost not expressed in other tissues. TaWD40–161 might play a pivotal role in anther development. The qRT-PCR results verified the special expression profiles of some TaWD40s during seed development (Fig. 5). The RNA-seq data of tissue expression profile analysis exhibited the expression levels of TaWD40s in wheat seed grown for 2, 14, and 30 days after anthesis. Interestingly, the expression levels of almost all of TaWD40s in the wheat seed 14 days after anthesis were lower than those in the wheat seed 2 and 30 days after anthesis, and this expression characteristic was confirmed by the qRT-PCR results. The expression levels of most selected TaWD40s gradually decreased at the early stage of wheat seed development. The expression levels of TaWD40–135, TaWD40–26, and TaWD40–162 decreased and then significantly increased during wheat seed development. TaWD40–135 (containing the LisH domain at N-terminus and the bromodomain at C-terminus), TaWD40–26 (containing the NLE domain), and TaWD40–162 (containing BEACH domains) might participate in wheat seed development. TaWD40–1 and TaWD40–78 were identified as RAE1-like protein, which is an essential mitotic checkpoint regulator [51].

WD40s participate in responses to various abiotic stresses [52,53,54,55]. For instance, TaWD40D (identified as TaWD40–614 in this work), which is homologous to TaWD40–114 and TaWD40–362 (Additional file 1: Table S9-S11), functions as a positive regulator of plant responses to salt and osmotic stresses [53]. In our study, the upregulated expression of TaWD40–362 under cold, heat, and drought stresses validated that it was implicated in multiple abiotic stress responses. RNA-seq data analysis revealed that a number of TaWD40s responded to multiple abiotic stresses, and the number of the upregulated genes was larger than that of the downregulated ones. The number of responsive TaWD40s remarkably increased as the treatment time was extended. Conversely, only a few TaWD40s significantly responded to biotic stresses at the early stage of treatments.

Conclusions

In this study, 743 TaWD40s distributed on subgenomes A, B, and D were identified and analyzed on a genome-wide scale. All of the genes were distributed extensively and unevenly on every chromosome of each subgenome, but they had one-to-one homology relationship at a subgenome level. Phylogenetic analysis and conserved domain prediction revealed that 743 TaWD40s were arranged in 5 main distinct clusters and grouped into 11 subfamilies. Synteny analysis indicated that WD40s in wheat were highly homologous to those in rice. Sequence analysis suggested that segmental duplication and tandem duplication were the major driving forces of TaWD40 family evolution. Homologous recombination was also essential for gene evolution.

The expression profiles of TaWD40s were analyzed by using RNA-seq data, and the results indicated that most TaWD40s were expressed in the entire life cycle of wheat. Some tissue-specific expression genes might participate in the development of spikes and seeds. The qRT-PCR analysis confirmed the crucial roles of some TaWD40s in wheat seed development. The expression profiles of TaWD40s under different stresses indicated that a large number of TaWD40s were involved in responses to stresses of cold, heat, drought, and powdery mildew infection in wheat. Our study provided a reference for the further functional investigation of these selected candidate TaWD40 proteins.

Methods

Identification of TaWD40 proteins

The HMM profile of the WD40 domain (PF00400) was downloaded from Pfam (http://pfam.xfam.org/family/PF00400) to identify all of the WD40 proteins in wheat, and the whole genome sequence of wheat cv. Chinese Spring (IWGSC RefSeqv1.0) was downloaded from URGI (https://wheat-urgi.versailles.inra.fr/Seq-Repository/Assemblies). All of the WD40 proteins were identified by using the default settings of hmmsearch program of the HMMER3.0 software (http://hmmer.org/download.html), and the redundant sequences among them were deleted by utilizing the perl program. The SMART website (http://smart.embl-heidelberg.de) [44] and the HMMER website (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/hmmer/) [43] were used to confirm all the TaWD40s containing WD40 repeat. In addition to the WD40 domain, other conserved motifs in these genes were identified.

Structural analysis of TaWD40s

The coding sequence (CDS), protein sequence, and genomic sequence of the identified TaWD40s were obtained from IWGSC RefSeq v1.0 (https://wheat-urgi.versailles.inra.fr/Seq-Repository/Assemblies). An exon/intron map was drawn by uploading their CDS and genomic sequences to Gene Structure Display Server (GSDS 2.0, http://gsds.cbi.pku.edu.cn/) [56]. Theoretical pI and MW were analyzed (https://web.expasy.org/compute_pi/) [57, 58].

Chromosomal distribution, gene duplication, and synteny analysis

The location of each WD40 on the 21 wheat chromosomes was mapped to IWGSC RefSeq v1.0 (cv. Chinese_Spring) by using Blast programs (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi) [59], and a physical map was drawn with MapInspect. The following criteria were used to identify the tandem duplication events of TaWD40s: 1) alignment length was over 80% of the full length of the gene, 2) aligned region had an identity over 80%, and 3) no genes were inserted between them. Segmental duplication was defined as follows: 1) alignment length was longer than 1 kb, and 2) aligned region had an identity of > 90% [60,61,62,63]. The segmental duplications in three subgenomes were separately identified, considering that wheat is a hexaploid. MCScanX was used to analyze the synteny of WD40s between wheat and rice [64, 65], and figures were drawn with Circos v0.69 [66]. Ka/Ks was calculated with KaKs Calculator 2.0 (https://sourceforge.net/projects/kakscalculator2/) [67].

Phylogenetic analysis

The WD40 protein sequences of wheat were imported to Clustal X2 (http://www.clustal.org/clustal2/) [68], and complete alignment was conducted by using the default settings. The alignment results were imported to MEGA7 (https://www.megasoftware.net/) [69] to construct an unrooted phylogenetic tree by using N-J method with a bootstrap of 1000 replicates.

Expression profile analysis

The RNA-seq data were downloaded from the expVIP website (http://www.wheat-expression.com/) to analyze the spatial and temporal expression profiles of WD40s in wheat [70, 71]. The study title was “choulet_URGI”. Two biological replicates with 15 tissue types of wheat (cv. Chinese Spring) were used. A heatmap was drawn by using R program (https://www.R-project.org/) gplots package. The RNA-seq data (study title “SRP043554,” “SRP045409,” and “SRP041017”) were downloaded from the expVIP website to examine the expression profiles of TaWD40s under different stresses (cold, heat and drought, powdery mildew pathogen, and stripe rust pathogen). R program DESeq2 package was utilized to evaluate the differential expression of TaWD40s under stresses and to draw MA plots.

For qRT-PCR analysis, the seeds of wheat cv. Chinese Spring were sampled every 4 days after anthesis for 7 continuous times. Target materials were quick frozen in liquid nitrogen and then transferred to a refrigerator at − 80 °C. Total RNA was collected with a plant tissue total RNA extraction kit (Zomanbio, Beijing, China), and the first cDNA chain was synthesized using a FastKing RT kit with gDNase (Tiangen, Beijing, China). The qRT-PCR analysis was performed using AceQ qPCR SYBR Green Master Mix (Vazyme, Nanjing, China) on a qRT-PCR machine (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). The primer sequences used for the expression profile analysis are presented in Additional file 1: Table S8. The wheat housekeeping gene TaActin (accession No. AB181991.1) was used as a reference gene.