Abstract
Background
Rice aleurone layer develops different colours with various chemical tests that may help to develop some rapid tests for identification/grouping of rice varieties. Understanding the colour inheritance pattern could enable to develop chemical clues that may help for genetic purity analysis along with grow-out-test.
Results
In this study, inheritance pattern of aleurone layer colour was studied in parents, F1 and F2 progenies derived from the crosses IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693. The parent IR 36 showed light yellow (NaOH/KOH) and brown (phenol/modified phenol test) colour; whereas, Acc. No. 2693 revealed wine red/dark wine red (NaOH/KOH) and light brown colour/no reaction (phenol/modified phenol test). In contrary, another parent IR 64 exhibited light yellow (KOH/NaOH) and dark brown (phenol, modified phenol) colour. Both the F1 showed an intermediate light wine red colour (NaOH/KOH) and dark brown (phenol and modified phenol) colour, which is dominant over their one of the parents. The colour pattern with standard phenol/modified phenol, NaOH and KOH tests in F2 progenies of both the crosses showed 9:7 (complementary gene interaction) and 11:5 ratios (reciprocal dominance modification of recessive alleles), respectively.
Conclusions
Our findings clearly elucidate the colour inheritance pattern in rice that may facilitate to develop rapid chemical tests to identify/ group the varieties for genetic purity analysis.
Similar content being viewed by others
Background
Chemical tests in rice, so far have been extrapolated for identification/characterization of cultivars on the basis of colour pattern in aleurone layer that might developed through enzyme mediated reactions. Aleurone layer is a living entity, which constitute outermost layer of endosperm, specialised in de novo synthesis of reserve mobilizing enzyme complex during seed germination process (Kumar et al. 2015). In addition, the aleurone layer is also involved in the synthesis of oxidase enzymes such as laccase, tyrosinase, polyphenol oxidase, monophenol oxidase and horse-radish peroxidase, which catalyzes to form a colour reaction (Cabaj et al. 2010; Fernandes et al. 2005). Among these oxidases, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) is one of the enzyme that is involved in oxidation of phenol colour reaction through formation of brown coloured melanin pigment (Steffens et al. 1994; Kumar et al. 2016). Polyphenol oxidases avail molecular oxygen, which undergoes hydroxylation and dehydrogenation of phenolic compounds to form reactive o-quinones. These o-quinones alkylate nucleophilic groups and self-polymerize to form melanin polymers (Fuerst et al. 2014). Role of oxidases is reported to be multifaceted, wherein they are involved in potential seed defense pathways and located in aleurone layer as indicated by their increased levels in the aleuronic fraction (Fraignier et al. 2000; Kumar et al. 2017a; Sinha et al. 2016). Proteomic analysis of aleurone layer in wheat suggested the presence of oxidases along with proteins involved in metabolism (Jerkovic et al. 2010; Kumar et al. 2017b).
In rice, genetic studies on inheritance of colour formation in aleurone layer have been limited. However, biochemical aspects of various enzymes secreted through aleurone layer especially PPO and other reserve mobilizing enzymes have been well studied. Many workers (Joshi and Banerjee 1970; Joshi and Banerjee 1969; Jimenez and Dubcovsky 1999) studied the colour formation of wheat polyploids that had developed colour when reacted with phenol and tyrosine substrates mediated by PPO. Further, reactions of whole-wheat seeds with phenol (Joshi et al. 1969: Maguire et al. 1975) and catechol (Milner and Gould 1951) have been used for cultivar purity testing. Miczynski (1938) reported the presence of one or two genes in bread wheat, which controlled the phenol colour reaction. Moreover, various chemical tests were used so far in identification and differentiation of crop varieties based on the colour differences generated in the aleurone layer when reacted with different chemical tests. Besides, genetic background of the varieties also plays an important role in the identification of varieties. The colour formation by enzyme system has been reported in pearlmillet (Varier et al. 1995), foxtail millet (Pallares et al. 2004), sorghum (Thangavel et al. 2005), rice (Mor et al. 2006; Dileepkumar et al., 2015; Chandu et al. 2017) and wheat (Joshi et al. 2007), respectively. Chemical tests such as FeSO4 (Pallares et al. 2004), KOH (Mor et al. 2006), phenol and modified phenol tests (Joshi et al. 2007; Banerjee and Chandra 1977) etc. were studied for the development of seed keys. The purpose of the present study is to determine the inheritance pattern and segregation of colour formation trait in aleurone layer of rice using parents, F1 and F2 progenies derived from the crosses IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 by chemical tests.
Results and Discussion
Aleurone Layer Colouration in Parents IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693
Studies on colour formation of aleurone layer revealed that IR 36 showed light yellow with NaOH and KOH tests, whereas, phenol and modified phenol tests recorded brown colour. The Acc. No. 2693 recorded wine red / dark wine red colour with NaOH, KOH and light brown colour/ no reaction colour with phenol and modified phenol tests, respectively. Similarly, IR 64 recorded light yellow colour with NaOH and KOH tests; while phenol and modified phenol tests were recorded dark brown colour as shown in Table 1. Colour formation with phenol test is depicted in Fig. 1, where the genotypes were grouped based on the biochemical tests and were in congruence with other studies (Thangavel et al. 2005; Nethra et al. 2007; Vijayalakshmi and Vijay 2009; Singh et al. 2011; Anitalakshmi et al. 2014; Kumar et al. 2015).
Aleurone Layer Colour Inheritance in F1 Plant of IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693
The F1s were derived from the crosses IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR64 × Acc. No. 2693, respectively (Table 1). The freshly harvested F1 seeds (derived from cross IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693, as depicted in Fig. 2) showed light wine red colour with NaOH and KOH tests; while brown colour was recorded with phenol and modified phenol tests, respectively.
Further, the freshly harvested F1 seeds derived from the cross IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 (Fig. 3) showed light wine red colour with NaOH and KOH tests, respectively. In contrary, reaction with phenol and modified phenol tests showed dark brown colour, respectively. NaOH and KOH tests showed intermediate colour segregation i.e. light wine red colour compared with parents. In the same way, in case of phenol and modified phenol tests showed dark brown colour from cross IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 and the similar colour pattern was recorded in case of IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 that implies that the observed colour is dominant over light yellow.
Aleurone Layer Colour Inheritance in F2 Progenies Derived from IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 with Standard Phenol and Modified Phenol (copper sulphate) Tests
Out of 484 F2 progenies of cross IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693; 273 and 255 F2 progenies were brown/dark brown in colour, whereas 211 and 229 F2 progenies showed light brown/no colour with standard phenol and modified phenol tests, respectively. Further, 420 F2 progenies derived from cross IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 were evaluated. It is observed that 251 and 246 F2 progenies were brown/dark brown in colour; 169 and 174 F2 progenies showed light brown/no reaction with standard phenol and modified phenol tests, respectively. Therefore, the investigation revealed that the colour trait in the aleurone layer of F2 progenies were segregated with complementary gene interaction with a ratio of 9:7 indicates a goodness of fit with observed ratio (Table 2). The F2 colour segregation was consistent with the complementary gene interaction (9:7) for all F2 progenies of both the crosses. Therefore, two major genes and their alleles with complementary gene action controls the colour formation in aleurone layer.
The development of colour in aleurone layer (brown/ dark brown) with standard phenol and modified phenol tests (copper sulphate) in rice requires the presence of two dominant genes, B1 and D2 e.g. B1B1 D2D2 (Fig. 4). When either B1 (e.g. b1b1 D2D2) or D2 (B1B1 d2d2) or both the genes (e.g. b1b1 d2d2) are present in homozygous recessive condition, brown/ dark brown colour cannot be produced; as a result, light brown / no reactions were obtained. The brown/dark brown colour variety (IR 36 and IR 64) of rice (B1B1 D2D2) was crossed to a light brown/no reaction variety (Acc. No 2693) with the genotype b1b1 d2d2 showed dark brown colour in the F1 (B1b1 D2d2) progeny. In the F2 progenies, on an average nine progenies had one dominant allele of both the genes B1 and D2. These plants, therefore has brown/ dark brown colour. Three, out of sixteen F2 progenies, shall have dominant B1 but had homozygous recessive genotype b1b1; three others shall have dominant D2 but had homozygous recessive genotype d2d2, while one plant had both the genes in homozygous recessive genotype b1b1 d2d2. All these (seven progenies) had light brown/no reaction. In this type of gene interaction, the production of one of the two phenotypes of colour trait requires the presence of dominant alleles of both the genes controlling the concerned trait. When any one of the two or both the genes are present in the homozygous recessive state, the contrasting phenotype is produced, which leads to various modifications of the typical dihybrid, trihybrid etc. F2 ratio.
The Mechanism of Colour Formation in Aleurone Layer
Phenol test, which is an index of polyphenol oxidase activity, has been reported to be associated with intra-varietal diversity that has been used in ascertaining varietal purity. Colour formation in aleurone layer occurs by phenol oxidation in two reactions (Fig. 5). In the first reaction, the aromatic ring of phenol can be hydroxylated to form catechols or quinols, respectively. In the second reaction, the quinols or catechols undergo oxidation to form quinones (Takahashi, 1984). Two major genes and their allelic interactions control this reaction, which is localized in seed aleurone layer in rice. The ability of genotype to form colour depends on the tyrosinase activity, which is located at aleuronic layer (Masuthi et al. 2015). The extent of colour intensity among germplasms varied because of differences in enzyme activity, temperature, light, aeration and genetic background, respectively (Sivasubramanian and Ramakrishnan 1974). On the other hand, the germplasms with no colour might have resulted because of inability to hydroxylate the aromatic ring of phenol either due to shortage of electron donor or hydroxylating enzyme (Takahashi and Hamza 1983).
The results of phenol test are usually distinct and easily interpreted. Walls (1965), reported that the phenol colour reaction depends on the quality and quantity of oxidases present in the seeds, whereas Takahashi and Hamza (1983), reported that monophenol oxidase was extremely localized in aleurone layer of grains even though it is present in all other plant parts of a variety. Presence of enzyme system has been utilized to distinguish the crop varieties in rice and tomato (Pieper 1922; Joshi and Banerjee 1970; Mansing 2010; Vijayalakshmi and Vijay 2009; Anitalakshmi et al. 2014; Sripunitha and Sivasubramaniam 2014; Vishwanath et al. 2013).
Qian et al. (2000) reported major QTL (qPH-4a) that is responsible for phenol colour has been located on chromosome 4, which explained the total phenotypic variation as high as 94.6%. Hence, this QTL is controlled by major gene. Moreover, two minor QTLs (qPH-1 and qPH-4b) located on chromosome 1 and 4 have account of total phenotypic variation of 14.9 and 29.5%, respectively. Hence, minor genes that code for these QTLs, which control phenol colour have showed positive additive effects. Phenol showed a bimodal distribution in the double haploid population and a major gene detected was close to the Ph gene located on chromosome 4 (Lin et al. 1994).
Aleurone Layer Colour Inheritance in F2 Population Derived from IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 with Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Tests
The 484 F2 progenies of the cross IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 were evaluated. Among them, 319 and 335 F2 progenies were wine red/dark wine red colour, whereas 165 and 149 F2 progenies were light yellow coloured with NaOH and KOH tests, respectively. Further, 420 F2 progenies derived from the cross IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 were evaluated, of which 281 and 290 F2 progenies were wine red/dark wine red colour and 139 and 130 F2 progenies were light yellow coloured with NaOH and KOH tests, respectively.
The segregation of aleurone layer colour in 11:5 ratio for wine red/dark wine red and light yellow in F2 progenies of both the crosses showed that the colour trait is governed by two genes, where a dominance of one gene is modified by homozygous recessive condition of another gene. The two genes that interact to produce a single character may also reciprocally modify the dominance relationship between the alleles at the other locus. Thus, the typical 15:1 ratio for duplicate gene action is modified as 11:5 due to the reciprocal dominance modification of recessive alleles. This indicates a goodness of fit with expected ratio of 11:5 for the reciprocal dominance of duplicate genes as given in Table 3.
Two genes, WR1 and WR2 showing duplicate interaction governs the development of aleurone layer colour (wine red / dark wine red/light) with NaOH and KOH in rice plants. However, the recessive homozygous condition of one gene, say wr1 wr1 reverses the dominance relationship at the other locus; hence, the genotype wr1wr1 WR2 wr2 produces the same phenotype as the homozygous double recessive wr1 wr1, wr2 wr2 of light yellow/no reaction.. Similarly, homozygous recessive condition of the other gene, wr2 wr2 has the same effect on the dominance relationship at the wr1 locus. As a consequence, the genotype WR1 wr1 wr2 wr2 produces the same phenotype as the double recessive homozygote wr1 wr1 wr2 wr2 of light yellow/no reaction. Therefore, the genotypes WR1 wr1 wr2 wr2; wr1 wr1 WR2 wr2 and wr1 wr1 wr1 wr2 all produce light brown/no reaction condition. Thus, the dominant genes WR1 and WR2 behave as if, they were recessive to their allele’s wr1 and wr2, respectively; whenever they are present in association with the homozygous recessive state at the other locus that is with wr2 wr2 and wr1 wr1, respectively as depicted in Fig. 6.
The wine red/ dark wine red colour variety (Acc. No. 2693) of rice (WR1WR1 WR2 WR2) was crossed with a light yellow/no reaction variety (IR 36 and IR 64) with the genotype wr1wr1, wr2wr2, the derived F1 (WR1 wr1 WR2 wr2) has produced light wine red colour (intermediate) even in the presence of dominant alleles of both the genes. In the F2 generation, on an average nine plants out of 16, have at least one dominant allele of both the genes WR1 and WR2; these plants develop wine red and dark wine red colour.
One plant has the genotype WR1 WR1 wr2 wr2, while another has the genotype wr1 wr1 WR2 WR2. These two plants also develop wine red and dark wine red colour; since, they have either WR1 / WR2 in the homozygous state, which is able to produce wine red and dark wine red colour. Two plants out of 16 are heterozygous for WR2 and homozygous for wr1 and vice versa. These four plants do not develop wine red and dark wine red colour; since, the homozygous recessive state of wr2 and wr1, reverses the dominance relationship between WR1/wr1, WR2 / wr2, respectively. The remaining one plant is also light yellow/no reaction because it is homozygous recessive for both the genes wr1 wr1 wr2 wr2. Thus, the typical dihybrid 15:1 ratio for duplicate gene action is modified as 11:5 due to the reciprocal dominance modification of wr1 and wr2.
The present findings were reported in case of cotton (Fuchs et al. 1972). Two genes, G1 and G2 showing duplicate gene interaction governs the presence of pigment glands on cotton plants. However, the recessive homozygous condition of one gene, say g1 g1, reverses the dominance relationship at the other locus so that genotype g1 g1 G2 g2 produces the same phenotype as the homozygous double recessive g1 g1 g2 g2. Similarly, homozygous recessive condition of the other gene, g2 g2 has the same effect on the dominance relationship at the g1 locus. As a consequence, the genotype G1 g1 g2 g2 produces the same phenotype as the double recessive homozygote g1 g1 g2 g2 produces glandless plants. Therefore, the genotypes G1 g1 g2 g2, g1 g1 G2 g2 and g1 g1 g2 g2 all produce glandless condition; hence, the F2 phenotypic ratio 11:5 was observed. Similar classification was noticed in the present study with NaOH, which is in congruence with the report in wheat (Mansing 2010), rice (Vanangamudi et al. 1988; Sripunitha and Sivasubramaniam 2014), urdbean (Chakrabarthy and Agrawal 1990); cotton (Ponnuswamy et al. 2003; Reddy et al. 2008), safflower (Biradar Patil et al. 2006). In addition, the same findings corroborate with the crops such as sesamum (Suhasini 2006) soybean (Chavan 2010), sunflower (Sathisha et al. 2012; Kallihal et al. 2013) and tomato (Qian et al. 2000), respectively. The reasons for various colour attributed when reacted with sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide might be due to inherent chemical difference, stability of genetic characters and secondary metabolites present in the seeds (Masuthi et al. 2015; Vanderburg and Vanzwol 1991; Chakrabarthy and Agrawal 1990).
Therefore, these studies are particularly useful, where non-availability of distinct stable morphological markers for identification of increased varieties. These chemical tests along with other parameters like 1000 seed weight, seed size, response to GA3, 2,4-D and soluble proteins acts as a descriptors for identification of the rice varieties. Further, these tests could help to develop a rapid varietal identification that may help the breeders and seed inspectors to monitor the quality seed production (Nethra et al. 2007). Thus, chemical tests are one of the important characters that help in easy identification of varieties for genetic purity.
Conclusions
Based on the response of biochemical tests with 904 F2 progenies derived from crosses, IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 were utilised for delineation of inheritance pattern of aleurone layer colour in rice. In this investigation, it was found that the colour trait in aleurone layer of the F2 progenies derived from both the crosses were segregated with complementary gene interaction of 9:7 ratio (brown/dark brown: light brown/no reaction), indicating a goodness of fit with observed ratio for standard phenol and modified phenol tests (CuSO4), respectively. Further, the colour trait in F2 progenies of both the crosses with NaOH and KOH tests were observed to segregate in 11:5 ratio (wine red/dark wine red: light yellow/ no reaction), wherein typical 15:1 ratio for duplicate gene action is modified as 11:5 due to the reciprocal dominance modification of recessive alleles. Therefore, it is deduced that the colour trait in aleurone layer was found to be controlled by two major genes and their allelic interactions. These findings could be utilised for easy identification of varieties in rice breeding programme, gene expression analysis, cloning and tagging of gene and also to develop the seed keys to precisely define cultivars that would serve an alternative for Grow-out-test.
Methods
Plant Materials
The present work was carried out using IR 36, IR 64 and Acc. No. 2693 (as parents), F1 and F2 progenies. The F1s were derived from cross between IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693, respectively during kharif 2014 at ICAR-Directorate of Seed Research (ICAR-DSR), Mau, Uttar Pradesh, India. Both the crosses (F1 seeds) were raised during off-season 2014–15 at regional station, ICAR-DSR, GKVK campus, Bengaluru. Further, F2 progenies of both the crosses were raised during kharif − 2015 at ICAR-DSR, Mau; 484 and 420 F2 seeds of both crosses IR 36 × Acc. No. 2693 and IR 64 × Acc. No. 2693 were used for present investigation to delineate the inheritance pattern of colour trait in aleurone layer using chemical tests, respectively.
Chemical Tests
To know the segregation pattern of colour trait in aleuronic layer, study has been performed using different chemical tests such as standard phenol, modified phenol (CuSO4), potasium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide tests. These chemical tests are insensitive to environment and serves not only as basis for grouping of varieties, but also used for genotype identification (Naga Padma et al. 1996) with consistent results.
Phenol Test
For phenol test, seeds were pre-soaked in distilled water for 24 h. Thereafter, they were transferred on two layers of Whatman No.1 filter paper saturated with 4 % phenol solution (Merck, Cat. No. AL8AF58565, Merck Specialities Private Ltd. Mumbai, India). The Petri-dishes were covered and incubated at 25 ± 1 °C and the change in colour of aleurone layer in response to phenol reaction was evaluated after 24 h. The parents, F1 and F2 progenies were categorized into five categories as no reaction, light brown, brown, dark brown and black colour (Jaiswal and Agrawal 1995).
Modified Phenol Test-A (CuSO4)
Modified phenol test was conducted, which is alike to standard phenol test except that seeds were pre-soaked in 0.5% (w/v) copper sulphate (Helix Bio-Science, Cat. No.HBC043212, New Delhi, India) solution for 24 h. Colour reaction was noted after 48 h of incubation and the parents; F1 and F2 progenies were categorized into five categories as no reaction, light brown, brown, dark brown and black colour (Jaiswal and Agrawal 1995).
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) Test
Parents, F1 and F2 seeds were subjected to sodium hydroxide test where, seeds were pre-soaked in 5 % sodium hydroxide solution (Merck, Cat. No. MJ8D580230, Merck Specialities Private Ltd. Mumbai, India) and kept at room temperature for one hour and change in colour of the solution was observed. Chakrabarty et al. 1989, categorized the reaction into light yellow and wine red based on the intensity of change in colour solution.
Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Test
Seeds of parents, F1 and F2 progenies were pre-soaked in 5 % potassium hydroxide solution (Helix Bio-Science, Cat. No. A3641, New Delhi, India) and kept at room temperature for 4 h and a change in colour of the solution was observed. Based on the intensity of reaction, the populations were categorized into various groups viz., light yellow, dark yellow, light wine red, dark wine red (Vanangamudi et al. 1988).
Chi-square (χ2) Goodness of Fit Test
Chi-square (χ2) goodness of fit test was performed to analyse phenotypic segregation between observed values (O) to the expected values (E) for F2 population data, using χ2 = ∑(O - E)2 /E.
Abbreviations
- Acc. No.:
-
Accession number
- B:
-
Brown
- b1b1 d2d2 :
-
Light brown/no reaction
- B1B1 :
-
Brown
- D2D2 :
-
Dark brown
- DB:
-
Dark brown
- DWR:
-
Dark wine red
- ICAR:
-
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
- KOH:
-
Potassium hydroxide
- LB:
-
Light brown
- LWR:
-
Light wine red
- LY:
-
Light yellow
- NaOH:
-
Sodium hydroxide
- NR:
-
No reaction
- WR:
-
Wine red
- wr1 wr1 wr2 wr2 :
-
Light yellow/ no reaction
- WR1 WR1 :
-
Wine red
- WR2 WR2 :
-
Dark wine red
References
Anitalakshmi V, Gowda R, Sathisha CS, Prasad R (2014) Varietal response to various chemical tests for their characterization in rice (Oryza sativa L.) Indian J Plant Sci 3(2):177–179
Banerjee SK, Chandra R (1977) Modified phenol test for the varietal identification of wheat seed. Seed Sci Technol 5:53–60
Biradar Patil NK, Sangeeta M, Motagi BN, Vijaykumar AG, Hanchinal RR (2006) Characterization of safflower varieties through chemical tests. Abst.XII Nation. Seed Sem, 24–26 February, ANGRAU, Hyderabad, pp.168
Cabaj J, Sołoducho J, Nowakowska-Oleksy A (2010) Langmuir-Blodgett film based biosensor for estimation of phenol derivatives. Sensors Actuators B 143(2):508–515. 10.1016/j.snb.2009.09.047
Chakrabarthy SK, Agrawal RL (1990) Identification of black gram varieties-III: utilization of seedling growth response to added chemicals. Seed Res. 18(1):34–39
Chakrabarty SK, Agrawal RL, Bhowal (1989) Identification of blackgram varieties II. Utilization of morphological characteristics of seedlings. Seed Res 17(2):139–142
Chandu S, Jeevan Kumar SP, Sripathy KV, Somasundaram G, Udaya Bhaskar K, Ramesh KV, Madan K, Rajendra Prasad S (2017) Characterization and identification of rice germplasm accessions using chemical tests. Seed Res 45(1):75–83
Chavan NG (2010) Characterization of soybean genotypes [Glycine max (L.)Merrill] through morphological, chemical, molecular markers and image analyzer. M.Sc. Thesis submitted to University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/84304/1/th10085.pdf
Dileepkumar M, Vyakarnahal BS, Deshpande VK, Jagadeesha RC, Mukesh L, Chavan, Khaja RS (2015) Characterization of traditional aromatic rice cultivars by chemical markers. Int J Adv Res 3(5):103–107
Fernandes KF, Lima CS, Lopes FM, Collins CH (2005) Hydrogen peroxide detection system consisting of chemically immobilised Peroxidase and spectrometer. Process Biochem 40(11):3441–3445
Fraignier MP, Michaux-Ferriere N, Kobrehel K (2000) Distribution of peroxidases in durum wheat (Triticum durum). Cereal Chem 77:11–17. 10.1094/CCHEM.
Fuchs JA, Smith JD, Birds LS (1972) Genetic basis for an 11:5 dihybrid ratio observed in Gossypium hirsutum. J Hered 63:300–303
Fuerst EP, Okubara PA, Anderson JV, Morris CF (2014) Polyphenol oxidase as a biochemical seed defense mechanism. Front Plant Sci 5:689
Jaiswal JP, Agrawal RL (1995) Varietal purity determination in rice: modification of the phenol test. Seed Sci Technol 23:33–42
Jerkovic A, Kriegel AM, Bradner JR, Atwell BJ, Roberts TH, Willows RD (2010) Strategic distribution of protective proteins within bran layers of wheat protects the nutrient-rich endosperm. Plant Physiol 152(3):1459–1470
Jimenez M, Dubcovsky J (1999) Chromosome location of genes affecting polyphenol oxidase activity in seeds of common and durum wheat. Plant Breed 118:395–398
Namrata-Gupta, Joshi MA, Sarao NK, Sharma RC (2007) Utility of phenol test in varietal characterization. Crop Improv 34(1):77–81
Joshi MG, Banerjee SK (1969) Multiple alleles for phenol colour reaction in emmer wheat. Indian J. Genet. Plant Breed 29(2):280–284
Joshi MG, Banerjee SK (1970) Genetics of phenol colour reaction in emmer wheat. Proc Int Seed Assoc 35:207
Joshi MG, Banerjee SK, Naik MS (1969) Tyrosinase activity as a quantitative indicator of genetic control of phenol colour reaction in tetraploid triticums. Indian J Exp Biol 7:189–190
Kallihal PK, Rajendra Prasad S, Shwetha KS (2013) Characterization of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) hybrid and its parental lines based on biochemical tests at seed and seedling stages. Annals Biol Res 4(4):96–99
Kumar SPJ, Kumar VG, Dash A, Scholz P, Banerjee R (2017) Sustainable green solvents and techniques for lipid extraction from microalgae: a review. Algal Res 21:138–147
Kumar SPJ, Prasad SR, Banerjee R, Agarwal DK, Kulkarni KS, Ramesh KV (2017) Green solvents and technologies for oil extraction from oilseeds. Chem Central J 11:1–9
Kumar SPJ, Rajendra Prasad S, Banerjee R, Thammineni C (2015) Seed birth to death: dual functions of reactive oxygen species in seed physiology. Ann Bot 116(4):663–668
Kumar SPJ, Rajendra Prasad S, Kumar M, Singh C, Sinha AK, Pathak A (2016) Seed quality markers: a review. Res Rev S3:13–17
Lin SY, Nagamura N, Kurata M (1994) DNA markers tightly linked to genes. Ph. Alk and Rc. Rice Genet Newslett 11:108
Maguire JD, Steen KM, Grzelak K (1975) Classification of pacific northwest winter and spring wheat cultivars by phenol reactions. Proc. off. Assn. Seed Analysts 65:143–146
Mansing JS (2010) Characterization of wheat (Triticum spp.) genotypes trough morphological, chemical and molecular markers. M.Sc. (Agri.) thesis submitted to University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/handle/1/84530
Masuthi D, Vyakarnahal BS, Deshpande VK, Jagadeesha RC, Mukesh LC, Khaja Rubina S (2015) Characterization of traditional aromatic rice cultivars by chemical markers. Int J Adv Res 3(5):103–107
Miczynski K (1938) Genetische Studien fiber die Phenol Farben Reaktion beim Weizen. Z, zucht 22:564–587
Milner M, Gould MR (1951) The quantitative determination phenol oxidase activity in wheat varieties. Cereal Chem 28:473–478
Mor RS, Battan KR, Mehla BS (2006) Identification of rice varieties by laboratory techniques. National J Pl Improvement 8(1):28–31
Naga Padma K, Muralimohan RB, Ankaiah R, Sarada P (1996) Characterisation of twenty-three maize inbred lines through seed morphology, leaf stomatal studies and response of seedlings to added chemicals. Seed Res 24(1):15–19
Nethra N, Rajendra Prasad S, Vishwanath K, Dhanraj KN, Gowda R (2007) Identification of rice hybrids and their parental lines based on seed, seedling characters, chemical tests and gel electrophoresis of Total soluble proteins. Seed Sci Technol 35:176–186
Pallares IN, Ferrari L, Postulka EB, Ritta MN (2004) Identification of cultivars of foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.) from morphological and biochemical traits of their seed. Seed Sci Technol 32(1):187–196
Pieper H (1922) Ein Mittel zur Unterscheidung von Weizensorten am Korn. Deutsche Lantwritschaftlinche Presse 49(67):438–439
Ponnuswamy AS, Bhaskaran M, Sastri G (2003) Variety characterization in cotton by physical, chemical and bio-chemical methods. In: Training Mannual, variety characterization by image analysis and electrophoresis, pp 106–120
Qian Q, He P, Zheng X, Ying C, Zhu L (2000) Genetic analysis of morphological index and its related taxonomic traits for classification of indica/japonica rice. Sci China (series C) 43(2)
Reddy M, Hunje R, Nadaf HL, Biradar DP, Vyakarnahal BS (2008) Identification of cotton hybrids and parents through chemical tests. Agril Sci Digest 28(1):51–53
Sathisha CS, Rajendra Prasad S, Gowda R, Thimmegowda MN (2012) Comparison of various chemical tests for varietal characterization in sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). Indian J. Plant Sci 1(1):39–43
Singh D, Kumar A, Kumar N, Kumar V, Kumar S, Bhardwaj A, Sirohi P, Chand S (2011) Comparison of traditional physico-chemical methods and molecular marker assays for characterization of basmati rice (Oryza sativa L.). African J. Of. Biotechnology 10(62):13390–13398
Sinha AK, Agarwal DK, Kumar SPJ, Chaturvedi A, Tiwari TN (2016) Novel technique for precluding hybrid necrosis in bread wheat. Int J Tro Agr 34(3):761–765
Sivasubramanian S, Ramakrishnan V (1974) Use of phenol colour reaction for identification of rice varieties. Exp Agric 10:299–303
Sripunitha A, Sivasubramaniam K (2014) Varietal characterization rice varieties based on chemical methods. Trends Biosci 7(20):3139–3146
Steffens JC, Harel E, Hunt MD (1994) Polyphenol oxidase. In: Ellis BE et al (eds) Genetic engineering of plant secondary metabolism. Plenum Press, New York, pp 275–313
Suhasini KS (2006) Characterization of sesame genotypes through morphological, chemical and RAPD markers. M.Sc (Agri.) Thesis submitted to University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/handle/1/81949
Takahashi N (1984) Differentiation of ecotypes in Oryza sativa L. In: Takahashi N, Tsunoda S (eds) Biology of Rice. Japan Scientific Societies Press, Tokyo, pp 31–67
Takahashi N, Hamza AHA (1983) Differentiation of ecotypesin Oryza sativa L. I: reexamination for colour reaction with phenol. Japanese J Breed 33(3):243–250
Thangavel P, Bharathi A, Natarajan N, Evera T (2005) Varietal grouping in sorghum by seed and seedling morphology and response to chemical testing. Karnataka JAgric Sci. 18 (3): 664-672.
Vanangamudi K, Palanisamy V, Natesan P (1988) Variety determination in rice phenol and potassium hydroxide tests. Seed Sci Technol 16:465–470
Vanderburg NJ, Vanzwol RA (1991) Rapid identification techniques used in laboratories of the international seed testing association: a survey. Seed Sci Technol 19:687–700
Varier A, Dadlani M, Sharma SP (1995) Phenol test and electrophoresis of seed esterases for testing genetic purity in seed lots of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) inbreds. Indian J Agri Sci 65(11):789–792
Vijayalakshmi B, Vijay D (2009) Development of seed keys for varietal identification in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) using chemical tests. Seed Res 37(1&2):56–61
Vishwanath K, Pallavi HM, Nethra N, Rajendra Prasad S (2013) Chemical tests for identification and characterization of tomato cultivars. Plant Breed Seed Sci 68:3–12
Walls WE (1965) A standardized phenol method for testing wheat seed for varietal purity. Contribution no. 28 to the Handbook on Seed Testing. The Assoc. of Official Seed Analysts, Lincoln, NE.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Mr. Sunil Kumar Kannaujiya and Mr. Satish Chandra Kumar for their assistance in the experimental work.
Availability of Data and Materials
The datasets for supporting the conclusions of this article have been provided in the research article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceived, Designed & Performed the Experiments: CS. Formal analysis: CS; KBN. Contributing reagents: KVS; KUB; GS. Writing-original draft: CS; KVS. Writing-review & editing: CS; GP; SPJK. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
About this article
Cite this article
Singh, C., K.V., S., S.P., J.K. et al. Delineation of Inheritance Pattern of Aleurone Layer Colour Through Chemical Tests in Rice. Rice 10, 48 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12284-017-0187-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12284-017-0187-9