Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Compensatory Responses to Exercise Training As Barriers to Weight Loss: Changes in Energy Intake and Non-exercise Physical Activity

  • REVIEW
  • Published:
Current Nutrition Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose of review

Exercise can increase total energy expenditure to very high levels and therefore induce sizable energy deficits that, under carefully controlled conditions, elicit clinically significant weight loss. In real life, however, this is seldom the case among people with overweight or obesity, suggesting the existence of compensatory mechanisms that mitigate exercise-induced negative energy balance. Most studies have focused on possible compensatory changes in energy intake, and comparably little attention has been paid to compensatory changes in the physical activity patterns outside of the prescribed exercise, i.e., non-exercise physical activity (NEPA). The purpose of this paper is to review studies that have assessed changes in NEPA in response to an increase in exercise-induced energy expenditure.

Recent findings

The available studies examining changes in NEPA in response to exercise training are methodologically heterogeneous, conducted in participants with different age, gender, and body adiposity, and examined responses to varying exercise regimens over a varying duration. About 67% of all studies—80% of short-term (≤ 11 wks, n = 5) and 63% of long-term (> 3 months, n = 19) studies—demonstrate a compensatory decrease in NEPA upon starting a structured exercise training program.

Summary

A compensatory decrease in other physical activities of daily life upon starting exercise training is a relatively common compensatory response—and probably more common than an increase in energy intake—that may be instrumental in attenuating the energy deficit caused by exercise, and thus preventing weight loss.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

  1. King AC, Tribble DL. The role of exercise in weight regulation in nonathletes. Sports Med. 1991;11:331–49. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199111050-00004.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Kroes M, Osei-Assibey G, Baker-Searle R, Huang J. Impact of weight change on quality of life in adults with overweight/obesity in the United States: a systematic review. Curr Med Res Opin. 2016;32:485–508. https://doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2015.1128403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Cecchini M. Use of healthcare services and expenditure in the US in 2025: The effect of obesity and morbid obesity. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0206703. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206703.

  4. • Okunogbe A, Nugent R, Spencer G, Ralston J, Wilding J. Economic impacts of overweight and obesity: current and future estimates for eight countries. BMJ Glob Health. 2021;6:e006351. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006351. A study modeling the impact of obesity on the economy taking into account the current and future numbers of people with overweight and obesitv.

  5. • Safaei M, Sundararajan EA, Driss M, Boulila W, Shapi'i A. A systematic literature review on obesity: Understanding the causes & consequences of obesity and reviewing various machine learning approaches used to predict obesity. Comput Biol Med. 2021;136:104754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104754. A recent systematic review obesity as a multifactoral disease, focusing on the importance of the obesogenic environment.

  6. Institute of Medicine. Physical Activity: Moving Toward Obesity Solutions. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Romieu I, Dossus L, Barquera S, Blottiere HM, Franks PW, Gunter M, et al. Energy balance and obesity: what are the main drivers? Cancer Causes Control. 2017;28:247–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10552-017-0869-z.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Weinsier RL, Hunter GR, Heini AF, Goran MI, Sell SM. The etiology of obesity: relative contribution of metabolic factors, diet, and physical activity. Am J Med. 1998;105:145–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9343(98)00190-9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Ho KKY. Diet-induced thermogenesis: fake friend or foe? J Endocrinol. 2018;238:R185–91. https://doi.org/10.1530/JOE-18-0240.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Danforth E Jr. Diet and obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 1985;41:1132–45. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/41.5.1132.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Silva AM, Júdice PB, Carraça EV, King N, Teixeira PJ, Sardinha LB. What is the effect of diet and/or exercise interventions on behavioural compensation in non-exercise physical activity and related energy expenditure of free-living adults? A systematic review. Br J Nutr. 2018;119:1327–45. https://doi.org/10.1017/s000711451800096x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Sopko G, Leon AS, Jacobs DR Jr, Foster N, Moy J, Kuba K, et al. The effects of exercise and weight loss on plasma lipids in young obese men. Metabolism. 1985;34:227–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/0026-0495(85)90005-8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Cooper JA, Nguyen DD, Ruby BC, Schoeller DA. Maximal sustained levels of energy expenditure in humans during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43:2359–67. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31822430ed.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Bouchard C, Tremblay A, Nadeau A, Dussault J, Despres JP, Theriault G, et al. Long-term exercise training with constant energy intake. 1: Effect on body composition and selected metabolic variables. Int J Obes. 1990;14:57–73.

  15. Verheggen RJ, Maessen MF, Green DJ, Hermus AR, Hopman MT, Thijssen DH. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of exercise training versus hypocaloric diet: distinct effects on body weight and visceral adipose tissue. Obes Rev. 2016;17:664–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12406.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Willis LH, Slentz CA, Bateman LA, Shields AT, Piner LW, Bales CW, et al. Effects of aerobic and/or resistance training on body mass and fat mass in overweight or obese adults. J Appl Physiol. 2012;113:1831–7. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01370.2011.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Donnelly JE, Hill JO, Jacobsen DJ, Potteiger J, Sullivan DK, Johnson SL, et al. Effects of a 16-month randomized controlled exercise trial on body weight and composition in young, overweight men and women: the Midwest Exercise Trial. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:1343–50. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.163.11.1343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Garrow JS, Summerbell CD. Meta-analysis: effect of exercise, with or without dieting, on the body composition of overweight subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1995;49:1–10.

  19. •• Bellicha A, van Baak MA, Battista F, Beaulieu K, Blundell JE, Busetto L, et al. Effect of exercise training on weight loss, body composition changes, and weight maintenance in adults with overweight or obesity: An overview of 12 systematic reviews and 149 studies. Obes Rev. 2021;22 Suppl 4:e13256. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.13256. An overview of 12 systematic reviews including 149 studies, which found that the weight loss induced by aerobic and resistance exercise training is the same, and overall modest (i.e. less than anticipated), when exercise-induced energy expenditure is matched.

  20. Colley RC, Hills AP, O’Moore-Sullivan TM, Hickman IJ, Prins JB, Byrne NM. Variability in adherence to an unsupervised exercise prescription in obese women. Int J Obes (Lond). 2008;32:837–44. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803799.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Donnelly JE, Honas JJ, Smith BK, Mayo MS, Gibson CA, Sullivan DK, et al. Aerobic exercise alone results in clinically significant weight loss for men and women: Midwest Exercise Trial 2. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2013;21:E219–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. King NA, Caudwell P, Hopkins M, Byrne NM, Colley R, Hills AP, et al. Metabolic and behavioral compensatory responses to exercise interventions: barriers to weight loss. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007;15:1373–83. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.164.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Donnelly JE, Kirk EP, Jacobsen DJ, Hill JO, Sullivan DK, Johnson SL. Effects of 16 mo of verified, supervised aerobic exercise on macronutrient intake in overweight men and women: the Midwest Exercise Trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78:950–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/78.5.950.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Donnelly JE, Herrmann SD, Lambourne K, Szabo AN, Honas JJ, Washburn RA. Does increased exercise or physical activity alter ad-libitum daily energy intake or macronutrient composition in healthy adults? A systematic review. PLoS One. 2014;9:e83498. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083498.

  25. Hubert P, King NA, Blundell JE. Uncoupling the effects of energy expenditure and energy intake: appetite response to short-term energy deficit induced by meal omission and physical activity. Appetite. 1998;31:9–19. https://doi.org/10.1006/appe.1997.0148.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Doucet E, McInis K, Mahmoodianfard S. Compensation in response to energy deficits induced by exercise or diet. Obes Rev. 2018;19 Suppl 1:36–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12783.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. •• MacKenzie-Shalders K, Kelly JT, So D, Coffey VG, Byrne NM. The effect of exercise interventions on resting metabolic rate: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Sports Sci. 2020;38:1635–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1754716. A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of different exercise protocols (aerobic, resistance, or combined). This study included 22 trials for qualitative analysis and 18 trials for the meta-analysis, and found benefits of resistance exercise on RMR, which could be usefull in future studies evaluating exercise training programs for weight loss.

  28. Segal KR, Pi-Sunyer FX. Exercise, resting metabolic rate, and thermogenesis. Diabetes Metab Rev. 1986;2:19–34. https://doi.org/10.1002/dmr.5610020102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Pontzer H, Durazo-Arvizu R, Dugas LR, Plange-Rhule J, Bovet P, Forrester TE, et al. Constrained total energy expenditure and metabolic adaptation to physical activity in adult humans. Curr Biol. 2016;26:410–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.046.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. •• Paravidino VB, Mediano MFF, Crochemore-Silva I, da Cruz VL, Antunes MML, Beaulieu K, et al. The compensatory effect of exercise on physical activity and energy intake in young men with overweight: The EFECT randomised controlled trial. Physiol Behav. 2021;229:113249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113249. This short-term randomized controlled trial examined the compensatory effect to exercise among young men with overweight and found significant energy compensation regardless of exercise intensity (moderate or vigorious exercise compared to a non-exercise control condition.

  31. Schubert MM, Palumbo E, Seay RF, Spain KK, Clarke HE. Energy compensation after sprint- and high-intensity interval training. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0189590. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189590.

  32. Colley RC, Hills AP, King NA, Byrne NM. Exercise-induced energy expenditure: implications for exercise prescription and obesity. Patient Educ Couns. 2010;79:327–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2010.03.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Stubbs RJ, Sepp A, Hughes DA, Johnstone AM, Horgan GW, King N, et al. The effect of graded levels of exercise on energy intake and balance in free-living men, consuming their normal diet. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2002;56:129–40. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601295.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Goran MI, Calles-Escandon J, Poehlman ET, O’Connell M, Danforth E Jr. Effects of increased energy intake and/or physical activity on energy expenditure in young healthy men. J Appl Physiol. 1994;77:366–72. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1994.77.1.366.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. • Creasy SA, Wayland L, Panter SL, Purcell SA, Rosenberg R, Willis EA, et al. Effect of morning and evening exercise on energy balance: A Pilot Study. Nutrients. 2022;14:816. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14040816. A randomized controlled trial that found energy compensation to exercise training, however less among those who preformed exercise in the morning compared to those who exercised in the afternoon.

  36. • Broskey NT, Martin CK, Burton JH, Church TS, Ravussin E, Redman LM. Effect of aerobic exercise-induced weight loss on the components of daily energy expenditure. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2021;53:2164–72. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000002689. A randomized controlled trial which examined the effect of different amounts of aerobic exercise (8 or 20 kcal/jg body weight per week), and found significant energy compensation leading to about half the predicted weight loss in the high-amount arm and no weight loss in the low-amount arm.

  37. •Flack KD, Hays HM, Moreland J, Long DE. Exercise for weight loss: further evaluating energy compensation with exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2020;52:2466–75. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000002376. A randomized controlled trial which found that a high exercise load (6 sesssions/wk) was needed to induce a sizable loss of body fat.

  38. Riou M, Jomphe-Tremblay S, Lamothe G, Finlayson GS, Blundell JE, Décarie-Spain L, et al. Energy compensation following a supervised exercise intervention in women living with overweight/obesity is accompanied by an early and sustained decrease in non-structured physical activity. Front Physiol. 2019;10:1048. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01048.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Flack KD, Ufholz K, Johnson L, Fitzgerald JS, Roemmich JN. Energy compensation in response to aerobic exercise training in overweight adults. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2018;315:R619–26. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00071.2018.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. McNeil J, Brenner DR, Courneya KS, Friedenreich CM. Dose-response effects of aerobic exercise on energy compensation in postmenopausal women: combined results from two randomized controlled trials. Int J Obes (Lond). 2017;41:1196–202. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2017.87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Wasenius N, Venojärvi M, Manderoos S, Surakka J, Lindholm H, Heinonen OJ, et al. The effect of structured exercise intervention on intensity and volume of total physical activity. J Sports Sci Med. 2014;13:829–35.

  42. Rosenkilde M, Auerbach P, Reichkendler MH, Ploug T, Stallknecht BM, Sjödin A. Body fat loss and compensatory mechanisms in response to different doses of aerobic exercise–a randomized controlled trial in overweight sedentary males. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2012;303:R571–9. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00141.2012.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Church TS, Martin CK, Thompson AM, Earnest CP, Mikus CR, Blair SN. Changes in weight, waist circumference and compensatory responses with different doses of exercise among sedentary, overweight postmenopausal women. PLoS One. 2009;4:e4515. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004515.

  44. Meijer EP, Westerterp KR, Verstappen FT. Effect of exercise training on total daily physical activity in elderly humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1999;80:16–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210050552.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Kozey-Keadle S, Staudenmayer J, Libertine A, Mavilia M, Lyden K, Braun B, et al. Changes in sedentary time and physical activity in response to an exercise training and/or lifestyle intervention. J Phys Act Health. 2014;11:1324–33. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2012-0340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Drenowatz C, Hill JO, Peters JC, Soriano-Maldonado A, Blair SN. The association of change in physical activity and body weight in the regulation of total energy expenditure. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2017;71:377–82. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2016.228.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Rangan VV, Willis LH, Slentz CA, Bateman LA, Shields AT, Houmard JA, et al. Effects of an 8-month exercise training program on off-exercise physical activity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43:1744–51. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182148a7e.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Myers A, Dalton M, Gibbons C, Finlayson G, Blundell J. Structured, aerobic exercise reduces fat mass and is partially compensated through energy intake but not energy expenditure in women. Physiol Behav. 2019;199:56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.11.005.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Willis EA, Herrmann SD, Honas JJ, Lee J, Donnelly JE, Washburn RA. Nonexercise energy expenditure and physical activity in the Midwest Exercise Trial 2. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46:2286–94. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000000354.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Drenowatz C, Grieve GL, DeMello MM. Change in energy expenditure and physical activity in response to aerobic and resistance exercise programs. Springerplus. 2015;4:798. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-1594-2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. •• Hand GA, Shook RP, O'Connor DP, Kindred MM, Schumacher S, Drenowatz C, et al. The effect of exercise training on total daily energy expenditure and body composition in weight-stable adults: a randomized, controlled trial. J Phys Act Health. 2020;17:456–63.https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2019-0415. A study on the effects of exercise training in participants with overweight, which demonstrated the importance of stratification of participants to evaluate compensatory responses. Mean NEPA was unchanged for the whole group, but those randomized to moderate amount of exercise increased, whereas those randomized to high amount of exercise decreased NEPA.

  52. Hollowell RP, Willis LH, Slentz CA, Topping JD, Bhakpar M, Kraus WE. Effects of exercise training amount on physical activity energy expenditure. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41:1640–4. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31819c71a4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Halliday TM, Savla J, Marinik EL, Hedrick VE, Winett RA, Davy BM. Resistance training is associated with spontaneous changes in aerobic physical activity but not overall diet quality in adults with prediabetes. Physiol Behav. 2017;177:49–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.04.013.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Drenowatz C. Reciprocal compensation to changes in dietary intake and energy expenditure within the concept of energy balance. Adv Nutr. 2015;6:592–9. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.115.008615.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Melanson EL, Keadle SK, Donnelly JE, Braun B, King NA. Resistance to exercise-induced weight loss: compensatory behavioral adaptations. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45:1600–9. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31828ba942.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. • Willis EA, Creasy SA, Saint-Maurice PF, Keadle SK, Pontzer H, Schoeller D, et al. Physical activity and total daily energy expenditure in older US adults: constrained versus additive models Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2022;54:98–105. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002759. An interesting study that found different compensatory responses by gender, as men decreased NEPA whereas women increased NEPA.

  57. Unick JL, Otto AD, Goodpaster BH, Helsel DL, Pellegrini CA, Jakicic JM. Acute effect of walking on energy intake in overweight/obese women. Appetite. 2010;55:413–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2010.07.012.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Unick JL, Michael JC, Jakicic JM. Affective responses to exercise in overweight women: Initial insight and possible influence on energy intake. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2012;13:528–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.02.012.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

No funding was received for any aspect of the submitted work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark

    Julie Marvel Mansfeldt & Faidon Magkos

Authors
  1. Julie Marvel Mansfeldt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Faidon Magkos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Faidon Magkos.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

None.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Mansfeldt, J.M., Magkos, F. Compensatory Responses to Exercise Training As Barriers to Weight Loss: Changes in Energy Intake and Non-exercise Physical Activity. Curr Nutr Rep 12, 327–337 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-023-00467-y

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-023-00467-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation