Abstract
This paper analyzes the role of women in various types of transnational organized crime and tests the ‘gendered markets’ hypothesis by Zhang et al. (Criminology 45(3):699–733 2007) for a wide cross-section of 150 cases from the Dutch Organized Crime Monitor. The main information sources for the Dutch Organized Crime Monitor are closed Dutch police investigations into criminal groups, often spanning a period of several years. Following four data sweeps, a wide cross-section of 150 cases was collected about various forms of organized crime (period 1994–2011): ‘traditional’ drug trafficking cases (cocaine, heroin, and cannabis), but also other—less frequently prioritized—phenomena such as synthetic drugs (production and export), human smuggling, human trafficking, and fraud and money laundering. The paper discusses several important theoretical perspectives from the organized crime literature: the gendered markets hypothesis; the social embeddedness of (transnational) organized crime: and the idea of brokerage. Furthermore, empirical data are presented on how often women play a (prominent) role in different types of criminal activities and which roles they play. These findings are related to the ‘gendered markets’ hypothesis and alternative explanations. Further qualitative analysis is presented on the transnational aspects which can be discerned in the studied cases: transnational marriage and transnational relationships; language and mediation; and migration and legal status. Finally, the main conclusions are discussed as well as their theoretical and empirical relevance.
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Notes
This checklist elaborates upon the following main questions: What is the composition of the group and how do offenders cooperate? What kinds of illegal activities do they engage in and how do they operate? How do they interact with the opportunities and risks presented by their environment? What are the proceeds of the relevant criminal activities and how do they spend these proceeds? Which methods of criminal investigation were deployed against the group and what were the results? Which members of the group were brought to trial and what outcomes did these trials produce?
Classification would be simple, if criminal investigations would relate to one criminal organization pertaining one specific criminal activity. However, criminal investigations often involve various suspects pertaining to various criminal activities, sometimes in various types of cooperation. Therefore, this classification is based upon the main criminal activities that are part of the case study.
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The authors gratefully acknowledge the helpful suggestions of the editors, two anonymous reviewers and Frances Gilligan.
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Kleemans, E.R., Kruisbergen, E.W. & Kouwenberg, R.F. Women, brokerage and transnational organized crime. Empirical results from the Dutch Organized Crime Monitor. Trends Organ Crim 17, 16–30 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-013-9203-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-013-9203-7