Wo er eine Kamera wittert, da optimistelt er hinein.
‘Wherever he scents a camera, he puts on an optimisticish face.’
(The late German political satirist Dieter Hildebrandt on former German chancellor Helmut Kohl)
Abstract
German verbs ending in -eln are often described as having a diminutive or iterative meaning. While this rather vague and general observation is widely agreed upon, hardly any research has been done to examine these verbs in a systematic way. In this paper, we try to close this gap by examining morphological, semantic and pragmatic aspects of these verbs as well as discussing the potential of various theoretical models to explain these results.
Based on Jurafsky’s (1996) model of diminutives, we extend the notion of verbal attenuation to cover concepts like iterativity, low intensity and small pieces, which are part of the semantics of many -eln verbs. In addition to these semantic means of attenuation, many -eln verbs also trigger pragmatic types of attenuation such as contempt, trivialization or affection. We discuss possible relations between these different concepts and also show that some of them are more relevant for -eln verbs than others.
As a corpus-based analysis shows, these various types of verbal attenuation can not only be observed with verbs like tänzeln, where -l- appears as the result of a semantically motivated process of derivation, but, surprisingly, also quite frequently with verbs like fiedeln (< Fiedel) or non-derived verbs like nörgeln, where the presence of -l- cannot be accounted for in this way. This complex situation calls for an explanation which traditional rule-based approaches fail to provide. As a consequence, schema-based and exemplar-based models are discussed. We argue that output-oriented exemplar-based accounts promise to provide the best model of -eln verbs, since they allow for recognition of the importance of as well as the interaction between phonological, morphological, semantic and pragmatic similarities between -eln verbs, even when these verbs result from entirely different types of derivation or are not derived at all.
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Notes
An obvious parallel can be drawn with pairs of English verbs like to suck–to suckle, to tick–to tickle, or to crack–to crackle. However, English verbs ending in -le are much rarer than German verbs ending in -eln.
Available at http://www.oed.com/.
Available at http://dwb.uni-trier.de/de/.
Altmann (2011: 133) also mentions Bavarian diminutive-forms ending in -el/-erl (e.g. Bändel, Fischerl) as an alternative source.
This claim is in accord with our native speaker intuition. While the productivity of -eln was not systematically tested within the scope of this paper, -eln nonce-formations appear to be an everyday phenomenon of both spoken and written German. One such example is the non-lexicalized verb optimisteln in the initial quotation by Dieter Hildebrandt. Further examples are the verbs frickeln, daddeln and merkeln, which are used in an article in the online edition of the German newspaper Die Welt on June 04, 2005 (http://www.welt.de/print-welt/article674365/Frickeln-daddeln-oder-merkeln.html, accessed 19 August 2014).
In fact, Donalies (2005: 122) claims that the suffixes “-el” and “-er” are semantically equivalent (“[s]emantisch gleich bedeutend”).
Interestingly, Bußmann (2008: 301, s.v. Intensivbildung) links the intensive not only to the iterative but also, without further comments, to the concept of weariness or annoyance: “Solche […] Affixe verleihen oft den verbalen aber auch substantivischen Ableitungen die zusätzliche Bedeutungskomponente der Wiederholung (→ Iterativ) bzw. des Überdrusses, vgl. -el in spotten vs. spötteln […]”. (‘Such […] affixes often supply the verbal and also nominal derivations with the additional meaning component of repetition (→ Iterativ) or weariness, cf. -el in spotten vs. spötteln.’)
We are aware of Fortin’s (2011) arguments against polysemy accounts of expressive affixes, notably also Jurafsky’s (1996). However, we think that his way of explaining the descriptive and connotative meanings of expressive affixes as emerging compositionally from the interaction of the meanings of the affix and the base cannot be transferred to German -eln verbs because of the uncertain morphological status of what remains when -eln is split apart in the three types of verbs and because of the borderline position of -eln between derivational and expressive morphology (cf. Sect. 2.2.1).
See Mutz (2015) for a recent discussion of why “this picture […] might not be valid in all respects for all languages”.
See Schwarz and Chur (1993: 152–157) for an earlier discussion of this concept.
Dressler and Merlini Barbaresi (2001: 45–49) find further “flaws” in Jurafsky’s model, which concern, among other things, the relation between synchrony and diachrony, first language acquisition and the question of feature-linking and which they criticize in order to defend their own “model of morphopragmatics”. The discussion above focusses on those aspects which are most crucial for the analysis of -eln verbs.
The square brackets with “[fictive]” and “[non-serious]” in this quote are used in the original to mark features.
Mutz (2015) is less categorical in her criticism of Jurafsky’s. She discusses additional paths that lead to the development of diminutives in various languages (e.g. adjectives with the meaning ‘small’ or “suffixes deriving denominal adjectives or nouns with the meaning ‘related-to’ or ‘similar-to’ or ‘origin-of’’’) and proposes a “simplified and revisited model à la Jurafsky”, in which, importantly, “synchronic links between the senses only partially correspond to unidirectional diachronic paths”.
Among those prefixes that work particularly well with the concept of attenuation are herum- (e.g. herumwursteln (‘to muddle along’), herumfummeln (‘to fumble around’); 37 verbs in total) and durch- (e.g. durchmogeln (‘to cheat one’s way through’), durchwursteln (‘to bumble through’); 31 verbs in total).
Five -eln verbs are derived from existing -eln verbs according to the Duden: kribbeln < krabbeln, krickeln < kritzeln, pökeln < pekeln, schnipseln < schnippeln and schunkeln < schuckeln.
The category “other/unclear” subsumes cases whose derivational source is not entirely clear according to the Duden (e.g. sudeln < sieden V or Sudel N) and -eln verbs borrowed from other languages, viz. metzeln < Lat. macellare, torkeln < Mlat. torculare and treideln < ME. trailen. With the verbs recyceln, handeln (/æ/) and paddeln, which are borrowed from English (< recycle, handle, paddle), the spelling of the ending -eln has come about by the inversion of E. <le> to G. <el> signalling the integration of these loanwords into the German vocabulary.
It has rightly been pointed out by an anonymous reviewer of this paper that it is problematic to determine pragmatic meanings “in an armchair way”, i.e. without looking at actual uses in actual contexts. However, as an extensive corpus study of more than 270 verbs clearly went beyond the scope of this first in-depth study of -eln verbs, we decided to rely on the information given in the Duden and our own native-speaker intuition.
There is an obvious resemblance between the feature [playful-pretentive] and the feature [imitation] which is mentioned by Jurafsky. However, Jurafsky does not link imitation directly to ‘child’ but regards ‘small type-of’ and ‘small first’ as mediating nodes in his network.
Further examples include lachen (‘to laugh’) and lächeln (‘to smile’), spotten (‘to mock’) and spötteln (‘to mock in a playful manner, to poke gentle fun’), tanzen (‘to dance’) and tänzeln (‘to mince, to step delicately’).
In the case of achteln, dritteln and vierteln, which rely on a pattern that can be productively applied to all numbers (e.g. fünfteln, siebteln, etc.), it seems more likely that these verbs are derived from the corresponding terms denoting fractions, e.g. Viertel N or Achtel N, deriving in turn from Vierteil and Achtteil (lit. ‘fourpart’ and ‘eightpart’, respectively), which already contain the letter <l> as part of the noun Teil ‘part’, rather than directly from the cardinal numerals acht (‘eight’), vier (‘four’), etc.
A similar observation is made by Günther (1974: 256) with respect to German be- verbs: “Consider, for instance, the three verbs beflügeln, beschwingen und beseligen. They derivationally belong to three different types, but share the same grammatical and semantic properties.” Neef (1996) makes a related point for formations of the type Gehopse.
Note that, strictly speaking, frequency of tokens would have to be considered as well.
Our list of 273 -eln verbs was ordered first according to verb type and then according to alphabetical order within each of these three sections. Every tenth entry from this list was then selected for our sample, starting with the third item. This procedure allows for a random selection and at the same time preserves the quantitative relevance of the three types with respect to each other.
By underlining the importance of phonological similarities, this model also allows for the possibility of conceptual links to diminutive nouns like Städtl (‘small town’) or Bergl (‘small mountain’).
Prefixed verbs were excluded from this study. See Sect. 4.1 for more details on the method of data acquisition.
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Appendix
Appendix
The appendix supplies all verbs included in the study listed in alphabetical order. Column 1 specifies the Type of verb, column 2 the lemma, column 3 the base and column 4 the word class of the base, both as listed in the Duden. Column 5 gives English translation equivalents taken from bilingual dictionaries checked by a bilingual speaker of English and German.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | Verb | Base | Word class of base | English translation equivalent(s) |
1 | achteln | acht | numeral | divide into eight parts |
2 | adeln | Adel | noun | bestow a peerage, enoble |
1 | basteln | Bast | noun | practise handicraft, create with one’s hands |
1 | baumeln | Baum/bammeln | noun/verb | dangle, swing |
3 | bimmeln | n/a | n/a | ring with a light and soft tone |
1 | blinzeln | blinzen | verb | blink |
1 | blödeln | blöd | adjective | fool about |
1 | bördeln | Bord | noun | flange |
3 | brabbeln | n/a | n/a | mumble, mutter, babble |
1 | bröckeln | Brocken | noun | crumble |
1 | brodeln | Brot/Brühe | noun | bubble, seethe |
2 | bröseln | Brösel | noun | crumble, make crumbs |
1 | brummeln | brummen | verb | mumble, mutter |
2 | brutzeln | brodeln | verb | sizzle |
2 | buckeln | Buckel | noun | bow and scrape, kowtow |
3 | buddeln | n/a | n/a | dig |
1 | büffeln | buffen | verb | swot, cram |
2 | bügeln | Bügel | noun | iron |
3 | bummeln | n/a | n/a | stroll |
2 | bündeln | Bündel | noun | bundle, tie into bunches, concentrate |
1 | busseln | bussen | verb | kiss |
2 | deichseln | Deichsel | noun | wangle |
1 | deuteln | deuten | verb | quibbeln, niggle |
2 | doppeln | Doppel/doppelt | noun/adjective | double |
2 | doubeln | Double | noun | stand in for, double for |
1 | drängeln | drängen | verb | jostle |
2 | drechseln | Dræhsel | noun | turn (wood) |
1 | dritteln | drei | numeral | divide into three parts |
2 | drosseln | Drossel | noun | throttle, choke, turn down, reduce |
2 | dübeln | Dübel | noun | plug |
2 | dudeln | Dudel(sack) | noun | tootle, hum |
3 | dümpeln | n/a | n/a | hover, bob up and down |
2 | ekeln | Ekel | noun | be disgusted |
1 | fädeln | Faden | noun | thread |
2 | fesseln | Fessel | noun | tie up, fetter, shackle |
2 | fiedeln | Fiedel | noun | fiddle, scrape on the fiddle |
1 | fremdeln | fremd | adjective | be scared of strangers |
1 | frömmeln | fromm | adjective | act piously, affect piety |
1 | frösteln | Frost | noun | shiver |
3 | fummeln | n/a | n/a | fiddle, fumble |
1 | funkeln | funken | verb | sparkle |
1 | füßeln | Fuß | verb | play footsie |
2 | gammeln | gammal | adjective | laze about, loaf about |
1 | gängeln | gengen | verb | spoon-feed, keep tied to apron strings |
2 | gaukeln | Goukel | noun | trick, flutter, flit |
2 | geißeln | Geißel | noun | whip, flagellate, scourge |
2 | gipfeln | Gipfel | noun | culminate in |
1 | grabbeln | grabben | verb | grope around, rummage |
2 | graupeln | Graupel | noun | hail (shower of hailstones) |
1 | grummeln | grummen | verb | mutter |
1 | gründeln | Grund | noun | feed under water, on bottom of lake |
1 | gruseln | grausen | verb | give s.o. the creeps |
2 | gurgeln | Gurgel | noun | gargle |
1 | häckseln | hacken | verb | hack into smaller pieces |
2 | hageln | Hagel | noun | hail, rain down on |
1 | hakeln | haken | verb | finger-wrestle |
1 | häkeln | haken | verb | crochet |
2 | handeln | E. handle | borrowed | take action |
1 | hangeln | Hang | verb | move hand over hand |
1 | hänseln | Hanse | verb | tease |
1 | hätscheln | hatschen | verb | fondle, pamper |
2 | hebeln | Hebel | noun | lever |
1 | hecheln | hechen | verb | gossip, heckle, pant |
3 | hecheln | n/a | n/a | pant, hatchet, heckle |
1 | heucheln | huchen | verb | be a hypocrite, simulate |
2 | hobeln | Hobel | noun | plane |
1 | hoppeln | hoppen | verb | lollop, scamper |
3 | humpeln | n/a | n/a | limp, hobble |
1 | hüsteln | husten | verb | cough slightly and repetitively |
2 | jubeln | Jubel | noun | cheer, rejoice |
2 | kacheln | Kachel | noun | tile |
2 | kapseln | Kapsel | noun | place into a capsule |
2 | kegeln | Kegel | noun | play skittles or ninepins |
1 | ketteln | ketten | verb | link, loop |
1 | kippeln | kippen | verb | tilt back and forth |
3 | kitzeln | n/a | n/a | tickle |
1 | klingeln | klingen | verb | ring a bell |
2 | klöppeln | Klöppel | noun | make lace |
1 | klügeln | klug | adjective | puzzle |
2 | klüngeln | Klüngel | noun | form a clique |
2 | knebeln | Knebel | noun | gag |
2 | knobeln | Knobel | noun | roll dice, puzzle/rack one’s brain |
2 | knüppeln | Knüppel | noun | club, beat with a club or stick |
2 | koppeln | Koppel | noun | tie together, couple, join |
3 | krabbeln | n/a | n/a | crawl, tickle |
1 | kränkeln | krank/kranken | adjective/verb | be ailing |
1 | kräuseln | krausen | verb | make frizzy, crimp, screw up, pucker, ruffle |
1 | kraxeln | Kraxe | noun | clamber |
1 | krempeln | krempen | verb | card, turn, roll up |
2 | kribbeln | krabbeln | verb | tickle |
2 | krickeln | kritzeln | verb | scrawl, scribble |
1 | kriseln | Krise | noun | be in a state of impending crisis, trouble |
1 | kritzeln | kritzen | verb | scribble, scrawl |
2 | krümeln | Krümel | noun | crumble, make crumbs |
2 | kugeln | Kugel | noun | roll |
2 | kungeln | Kunkel | noun | scheme |
1 | künsteln | Kunst | noun | feign, behave in an affected manner |
2 | kurbeln | Kurbel | noun | turn a crank |
1 | kuscheln | kuschen | verb | cuddle |
1 | lächeln | lachen | verb | smile |
1 | lispeln | lispen | verb | lisp |
2 | löffeln | Löffel | noun | spoon, ladle |
2 | lümmeln | Lümmel | noun | sprawl, flop down |
1 | makeln | maken | verb | act as a broker |
2 | mäkeln | Makel | noun | carp, be finicky |
1 | mangeln | mangen | verb | press, iron, be lacking |
2 | mangeln | Mangel | noun | mangle, iron, be lacking |
2 | meißeln | Meißel | noun | chisel |
2 | mendeln | Mendel | proper name | mendelize, conform to Mendel’s laws |
1 | menscheln | Mensch | verb | showing humanity |
2 | metzeln | Lat. macellare | borrowed | slaughter, butcher |
1 | meucheln | muchen | verb | assassinate |
1 | muffeln | moppen | verb | smell musty |
3 | mümmeln | n/a | n/a | nibble |
3 | munkeln | n/a | n/a | be rumoured that |
2 | murmeln | Murmel | noun | murmer, mumble, mutter |
3 | murmeln | n/a | n/a | murmur, mumble, mutter |
2 | nageln | Nagel | noun | nail |
1 | näseln | Nase | noun | speak with a nasal twang |
2 | nebeln | Nebel | noun | be misty, be foggy |
2 | nesteln | Nestel | noun | fumble or fiddle with sthg. |
3 | nörgeln | n/a | n/a | moan, carp |
3 | nuckeln | n/a | n/a | suck, suckle |
1 | nuscheln | Nase | noun | mumble, mutter |
2 | orakeln | Orakel | noun | prophesy, prognosticate |
2 | orgeln | Orgel | noun | play the organ |
2 | paddeln | E. paddle | borrowed | paddle |
1 | päppeln | Papp | noun | nourish |
2 | pendeln | Pendeln | noun | swing, oscillate, commute |
2 | picheln | Pegel | noun | booze, knock back alcohol |
2 | pinseln | Pinsel | noun | paint, daub |
1 | plänkeln | blenken | verb | skirmish |
2 | pöbeln | Pöbel | noun | use bad language |
2 | pökeln | pekeln | verb | pickle, salt |
2 | popeln | Popel | noun | pick one’s nose |
1 | prasseln | brasten | verb | clatter, drum |
1 | prickeln | pricken | verb | make small rising bubbles, sparkle |
2 | prügeln | Prügel | noun | beat |
2 | purzeln | Burzel | noun | tumble, trip |
2 | puzzeln | Puzzle | noun | do a jigsaw puzzle |
1 | quasseln | quassen | verb | blather |
1 | quengeln | twengen | verb | whine |
1 | radeln | (Fahr)Rad | noun | cycle |
2 | rammeln | Ramme | noun | mate |
1 | rangeln | rangen | verb | tussle, wrangle, scrap |
1 | rappeln | rapen | verb | rattle, shake |
1 | rascheln | raschen | verb | rustle |
1 | raspeln | raspen | verb | grate, rasp |
1 | rasseln | raen | verb | rattle |
2 | rätseln | Rätsel | noun | puzzle, rack one’s brain |
2 | recyceln | E. cycle | borrowed | recycle |
2 | regeln | Regel | noun | settle, resolve, control |
2 | rempeln | Rämpel | noun | barge into s.o., jostle, elbow |
1 | ribbeln | ribben | verb | rub |
2 | riegeln | Riegel | noun | bolt (door) |
1 | rieseln | risen | verb | trickle |
2 | riffeln | Riffel | noun | comb, groove, channel, flute |
2 | ringeln | Ringel | noun | (en)twine, curl |
1 | röcheln | rohen | verb | breathe with rasping sound |
2 | rodeln | Rodel | noun | toboggan, sledge |
1 | rubbeln | rubben | verb | rub, scratch |
1 | ruckeln | Ruck | noun | jerk |
1 | rumpeln | rimpen | verb | rumble |
2 | runzeln | Runzel | noun | wrinkle, crease |
1 | rütteln | rütten | verb | shake, rattle |
1 | sabbeln | sabbern | verb | slobber, slaver |
2 | säbeln | Säbel | noun | saw away (at) |
1 | sächseln | sächsisch | adjective | speak a little bit like a Saxon |
1 | sammeln | samenen | adjective | collect |
2 | satteln | Sattel | noun | saddle |
1 | säuseln | sausen | verb | rustle, sigh, murmer |
2 | schachteln | Schachtel | noun | put into a box |
2 | schaufeln | Schaufel | noun | shovel, dig |
1 | schaukeln | schucken | verb | swing, rock |
2 | scheiteln | Scheitel | noun | part, divide |
2 | schimmeln | Schimmel | noun | go mouldy |
1 | schlängeln | Schlange | verb | wind, snake, wriggle |
2 | schlüsseln | Schlüssel | noun | code/calculate according to given data |
1 | schmeicheln | smeichen | verb | flatter |
2 | schmirgeln | Schmirgel | noun | sand, rub down |
1 | schmuddeln | smudden | verb | make dirty, make messy |
1 | schmunzeln | smunzen | verb | smile |
1 | schnetzeln | schnitzen | verb | slice |
1 | schniegeln | Schnecke | noun | spruce up |
1 | schnippeln | schnippen | verb | snip |
2 | schnipseln | schnippeln | verb | snip, hack |
2 | schnorcheln | Schnorchel | noun | snorkel, go snorkelling |
3 | schnüffeln | n/a | n/a | sniff, nose around |
1 | schrumpeln | schrumpen | verb | go/get wrinkled |
2 | schunkeln | schuckeln | verb | link arms and sway from side to side |
1 | schütteln | schütten | verb | shake |
1 | schwabbeln | schwabben | verb | wobble (about) |
1 | schwäbeln | schwäbisch | adjective | talk with a Swabian accent |
1 | schwächeln | schwach | adjective | become weaker, not perform properly |
1 | schwänzeln | schwanz | noun | wag tail |
2 | schwefeln | Schwefel | noun | sulphurize |
1 | schwindeln | schwinden | verb | fib |
2 | segeln | Segel | noun | sail |
2 | siedeln | Sedel | noun | settle |
2 | siegeln | Siegel | noun | seal |
2 | spachteln | Spachtel | noun | fill in, smooth over |
2 | spiegeln | Spiegel | noun | reflect, mirror |
2 | spitzeln | Spitzel | noun | spy, act as an informer |
1 | spötteln | spotten | verb | to mock, in a playful, light-hearted way |
2 | sprenkeln | Sprenkel | noun | sprinkle |
1 | sprudeln | sprühen | verb | bubble, fizz, effervesce, pour out |
2 | stacheln | Stachel | noun | spur on, goad |
2 | staffeln | Staffel | noun | grade, graduate, stagger |
2 | stammeln | stammal | adjective | stammer |
2 | stapeln | Stapel | noun | stack, pile up |
2 | stempeln | Stempel | noun | stamp |
1 | sticheln | stechen | verb | sew, embroider, make snide comments |
2 | stiefeln | Stiefel | noun | hoof it, leg it |
2 | stöckeln | Stöckel(absatz) | noun | trip, mince |
2 | stöpseln | Stöpsel | noun | connect |
1 | strampeln | strampen | verb | thrash about, kick your feet |
1 | straucheln | struchen | verb | stumble, trip, come to grief |
1 | streicheln | streichen | verb | stroke, fondle |
2 | striegeln | Striegel | noun | curry/comb, spruce oneself up |
1 | stückeln | Stück | noun | patch (together) |
2 | sudeln | sieden/Sudel | verb/noun | scrawl, daub |
1 | süffeln | Suff/saufen | noun/verb | tipple |
2 | tadeln | Tadel | noun | rebuke, reprimand |
2 | tafeln | Tafel | noun | feast, dine with s.o. |
2 | täfeln | Tafel | noun | wainscot, panel, line with wooden panels |
2 | takeln | Takelage | noun | rig |
1 | tändeln | tenten | verb | play about, dally |
1 | tänzeln | tanzen | verb | mince, step delicately |
1 | tätscheln | teschen | verb | pat |
1 | taumeln | tumen | verb | stagger, sway |
2 | tingeln | Tingeltangel | noun | appear in small nightclubs/theatres |
1 | tippeln | tippen | verb | tiptoe, trip, patter |
2 | titeln | Titel | noun | give as headline |
2 | torkeln | Med.L. torculare | borrowed | stagger, reel |
1 | trampeln | trampen | verb | stamp repeatedly, trample |
1 | trappeln | trappen | verb | clatter, clip-clop |
1 | träufeln | träufen | verb | dribble, trickle |
2 | treideln | ME. trailen | borrowed | tow |
3 | trippeln | n/a | n/a | trip, skip, toddle, mince |
3 | trödeln | n/a | n/a | dawdle |
2 | trommeln | Trommel | noun | drum |
1 | tröpfeln | tropfen | verb | drip |
3 | tummeln | n/a | n/a | romp about |
1 | tuscheln | tuschen | verb | whisper, talk behind somebody’s back |
1 | vierteln | vier | numeral | divide into quarters |
2 | vögeln | Vogel | noun | screw |
3 | wabbeln | n/a | n/a | wobble |
1 | wackeln | wacken | verb | wobble, shake, wriggle |
1 | wandeln | wanton | verb | change, walk, stroll |
1 | watscheln | wakzen | verb | waddle |
2 | wechseln | Wechsel | noun | change |
2 | wedeln | Wedel | noun | wag |
1 | werkeln | werken | verb | potter about |
2 | wichteln | Wichtel | noun | play Secret Santa |
2 | wickeln | Wickel | noun | wrap, bind, roll up |
1 | wiegeln | wegen | verb | rock gently |
1 | wimmeln | wimmen | verb | be teeming/swarming/riddled with sthg. |
1 | winseln | winsen | verb | whimper |
2 | wirbeln | Wirbel | noun | whirl, swirl |
1 | witzeln | Witz | noun | joke, crack silly jokes |
2 | würfeln | Würfel | noun | dice, cut into cubes, roll the dice |
1 | wursteln | wursten | verb | muddle, fiddle |
2 | wurzeln | Wurzel | noun | take root, be rooted in sthg. |
3 | wuseln | n/a | n/a | scurry, be teeming |
3 | zappeln | n/a | n/a | fidget, wriggle |
1 | zischeln | zischen | verb | whisper |
1 | zotteln | Zotte | noun | amble |
1 | zuckeln | zucken | verb | jog, trot wearily |
2 | zügeln | Zügel | noun | rein in |
1 | zündeln | zünden | verb | play with fire, play with matches |
1 | züngeln | Zunge | noun | dart tongue in and out, (flames) lick |
2 | zweifeln | Zweifel | noun | doubt |
1 | zwirbeln | zwirben | verb | twirl, twist |
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Weidhaas, T., Schmid, HJ. Diminutive verbs in German: semantic analysis and theoretical implications. Morphology 25, 183–227 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-015-9258-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11525-015-9258-z