Abstract
Purpose
Depositional seals, formed when turbid waters infiltrate into soils, lead to a reduction in soil hydraulic conductivity (HC) and enhance runoff and soil erosion. Since clay size particles constitute a dominant proportion of depositional seals, soil texture and clay mineralogy play a significant role in determining the seal’s hydraulic characteristics. Presence of high molecular weight anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) in suspension flocculates fine sediments, and therefore, its application to the soil surface may modify the characteristics of the depositional seal. The impact of PAM on the latter is expected to be influenced by soil properties. The aim of this study was to elucidate the effects of PAM application on clay flocculation and the HC of depositional seals formed in four soils varying in texture (ranging from loamy sand to clay loam), and diverse proportions of clay mineral constituents (kaolinite, smectite, and vermiculite).
Materials and methods
Soils from four physiographic regions of North Carolina, with different textures and clay mineral compositions, were used in the study. Clay size particles were extracted from each soil using common procedures and used for preparing 5 g L−1 clay suspension. The effects of adding an anionic high molecular weight (12 × 106 Da) PAM in various concentrations (0–10 mg L−1) to 5 g L−1 clay suspensions on sediment flocculation were studied with a nephelometer probe. The HC of depositional seals was studied by leaching soil columns with either deionized water (DW) or 5 g L−1 clay suspensions in the presence or absence of PAM at the soil surface. PAM was applied either as dry granules to the soil surface (at a rate equivalent to 20 kg ha−1) or by filling the overhead volume in the columns with a 0.5 mg L−1 PAM solution.
Results and discussion
Even at a PAM concentration of 0.5 g L−1, there was an increase of >50% in clay flocculation. Leaching the columns with DW in the presence of PAM caused a significant reduction in the HC. Conversely, during leaching with clay suspensions, addition of PAM in solution resulted in HC values (both initial and at apparent steady state) that were generally higher than those obtained in the absence of PAM. The impact of adding dry PAM varied with soil type. It had a negative impact on the HC of the depositional seals in the loamy sand and had no effect in the sandy loams; it did increase the HC of the seal in the clay loam from 3.6 mm h−1 in absence of PAM to 9.9 mm h−1 with PAM application.
Conclusions
The HC of the depositional seals studied depended on the combined effects of soil texture and clay mineral constituents. The effects of PAM on the HC of depositional seals depended on soil texture and on the mode of PAM application. Our results suggest that, in fine-textured soils, PAM is effective in improving the HC of depositional seals because it leads to the flocculation of the suspended material and thus to the formation of a less dense and more permeable seal on the soil surface. In coarse-textured soils, the lack of success of PAM in improving the permeability of depositional seals may stem from either the formation of a PAM layer at the soil surface with a distinct lower HC than that of the bulk soil and the depositional seal, or due to accumulation of the flocculated material in the pores at the upper few millimeters of the soil, thus forming a layer with a permeability even lower than that of the depositional seal itself.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aarstad J-S, Miller D-E (1973) Soil management practices for reducing runoff under center-pivot sprinkler systems. J Soil Water Conserv 28:171–173
Ajwa H-A, Trout T-J (2006) Polyacrylamide and water quality effects on infiltration in sandy loam soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 70:643–650
Arora H-S, Coleman N-T (1979) The influence of electrolyte concentration on flocculation of clay suspensions. Soil Sci 127:134–139
Arshad M-A, Mermut A-R (1988) Micromorphological and physico-chemical characteristics of soil crust types in north western Alberta, Canada. Soil Sci Soc Am J 52:724–729
Bhardwaj A-K, McLaughlin RA (2008) Simple polyacrylamide dosing systems for turbidity reduction in stilling basins. Trans ASABE 51:1653–1662
Bhardwaj A-K, McLaughlin R-A, Babcock D (2008) Energy dissipation and chemical treatment improve stilling basin performance. Trans ASABE 51:1645–1652
Bhardwaj A-K, McLaughlin R-A, Shainberg I, Levy G-J (2009) Polyacrylamide effect on flocculation and hydraulic properties of depositional seals made of different clays. Soil Sci Soc Am J 73:910–918
Bresson L, Boiffin J (1990) Morphological characterization of soil crust development stages on an experimental field. Geoderma 47:301–325
Bresson L-M, Moran C-J (1995) Structural change induced by wetting and drying in seedbeds of a hardsetting soil with contrasting aggregate size distribution. Eur J Soil Sci 46:205–214
Chen Y, Tarchitzky J, Brower J, Morin J, Banin A (1980) Scanning electron microscope observations on soil crusts and their formation. Soil Sci 130:49–55
Chorom M, Rengasamy P (1995) Dispersion and zeta potential of pure clays as related to net particle charge under varying pH, electrolyte concentration and cation type. Eur J Soil Sci 46:657–665
Coleman N-T, Jackson M-L, Mehlich A (1949) Mineral composition of the clay fraction of several Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and Mountain soils of North Carolina. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 13:81–85
Day P-R et al (1965) Particle fractionation and particle-size analysis. In: Black CA et al (eds) Methods of soil analysis. Part 1. Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA and SSSA, Madison, pp 547–567
Deng Y, Dixon J-B, White G-N (2006) Adsorption of polyacrylamide on smectite, illite, and kaolinite. Soil Sci Soc Am J 70:297–304
Dixon J-B, White G-N (1999) Soil mineralogy laboratory manual, 5th ed. Published by the authors, Department of Soil and Crop Science, Texas A&M University, College Station
Duley F-L (1939) Surface factors affecting the rate of intake of water by soils. Soil Sci Soc Am Proc 4:60–64
Fox D-M, Le Bissonnais Y, Quetin P (1998) The implications of spatial variability in surface seal Rc for infiltration in a mound and depression microtopography. Catena 32:101–114
Frenkel H, Rhoades J-D (1978) Effects of dispersion and swelling on soil hydraulic conductivity. J Test Eval 6:60–65
Frenkel H, Fey M-V, Levy G-J (1992) Organic and inorganic anion effects on reference and soil clay critical flocculation concentration. Soil Sci Soc Am J 56:1762–1766
Freebairn D-M, Gupta S-C, Rawls W-J (1991) Influence of aggregate size and microrelief on development of surface soil crusts. Soil Sci Soc Am J 55:188–195
Gee G-W, Bauder J-W (1986) Particle size analysis. In: Klute A (ed) Methods of soil analysis, part 1. Physical and mineralogical methods. ASA–SSSA, Madison, pp 383–411
Green V-S, Stott D-E, Norton L-D, Graveel J-G (2000) Polyacrylamide molecular weight and charge effects on infiltration under simulated rainfall. Soil Sci Soc Am J 64:1786–1791
Hillel D (1980) Applications of soil physics. Academic, New York
Jackson M-L, Lim C-H, Zelanzy L-W (1986) Oxides, hydroxides and aluminosilicates. In: Klute A (ed) Methods of soil analysis, part 1. Physical and mineralogical methods. ASA–SSSA, Madison, pp 101–150
Kemper W-D, Trout T-J, Brown M-J, Rosenau R-C (1985) Furrow erosion and water and soil management. Trans ASAE 28:1564–1572
Keren R (1989) Effect of clay charge density and adsorbed ions on the rheology of montmorillonite suspension. Soil Sci Soc Am J 53:25–29
Keren R (1991) Adsorbed sodium fraction's effect on rheology of montmorillonite–kaolinite suspensions. Soil Sci Soc Am J 55:376–379
Lado M, Ben-Hur M, Shainberg I (2007) Clay mineralogy, ionic composition, and pH effects on hydraulic properties of depositional seals. Soil Sci Soc Am J 71:314–321
Laird D-A (1997) Bonding between polyacrylamide and clay mineral surfaces. Soil Sci 162:826–832
Lentz R-D, Sojka R-E (1994) Field results using polyacrylamide to manage furrow erosion and infiltration. Soil Sci 158:274–282
Lentz R-D, Bjorneberg D-L (2003) Polyacrylamide and straw residue effects on furrow irrigation erosion and infiltration. J Soil Water Conserv 58:312–318
Malik M, Letey J (1992) Pore-sized-dependent apparent viscosity for organic solutes in saturated porous media. Soil Sci Soc Am J 56:1032–1035
Mamedov A, Huang C, Levy G-J (2006) Antecedent moisture content and aging duration effects on seal formation and erosion in smectitic soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 70:832–843
McIntyre D-S (1958) Soil splash and the formation of surface crusts by raindrop impact. Soil Sci 85:261–266
McLaughlin R-A, Bartholomew N (2007) Soil factors influencing suspended sediment flocculation by polyacrylamide. Soil Sci Soc Am J 71:537–544
Mehlich A (1984) Mehlich 3 soil test extractant: a modification of Mehlich 2. Soil Sci Plant Anal 15:1409–1416
Neaman A, Singer A (2000) Rheological properties of aqueous suspensions of palygorskite. Soil Sci Soc Am J 64:427–436
Phillips E-J-P, Lovley D-R (1987) Determination of Fe (III) and Fe (II) in oxalate extracts of sediments. Soil Sci Soc Am J 51:938–941
Pupisky H, Shainberg I (1979) The hydraulic conductivity of sandy soils: the effect of salt concentration and salt composition. Soil Sci Soc Am J 43:429–433
Quirk J-P (1994) Interparticle forces: a basis for the interpretation of soil physical behaviour. Adv Agron 53:121–183
Quirk J-P, Murray R-S (1991) Towards a model for soil structural behaviour. Aust J Soil Res 29:829–867
Rengasamy P, Sumner M-E (1997) Processes involved in sodic behaviour. In: Sumner ME, Naidu R (eds) Sodic soils. Oxford University Press, New York
SAS Institute (2004) The SAS system for Windows. Release 9.1. SAS, Cary
Shainberg I, Letey J (1984) Response of soils to sodic and saline conditions. Hilgardia 52:1–57
Shainberg I, Singer M (1985) Effect of electrolytic concentration on the hydraulic properties of depositional crust. Soil Sci Soc Am J 49:1260–1263
Sojka R-E, Lentz R-D (1997) Reducing furrow irrigation erosion with polyacrylamide (PAM). J Prod Agric 10:1–2, 47–52
Sojka R-E, Bjorneberg D-L, Entry J-A, Lentz R-D, Orts W-J (2007) Polyacrylamide in agriculture and environmental land management. Adv Agron 92:75–162
Southard R-J, Shainberg I, Singer M (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust. Soil Sci 145:278–288
Thomas G-W (1996) Soil pH and soil acidity. In: Sparks DL (ed) Methods of soil analysis. Part 3. SSSA Book Ser 5. SSSA, WI, pp 475–490
West L-T, Chiang S-C, Norton L-D (1992) The morphology of surface crusts. In: Sumner ME, Stewart BA (eds) Soil crusting: chemical and physical processes. Advances in soil science. Lewis, Boca Raton, pp 73–92
Whittig L-D, Allardice W-R (1986) X-ray diffraction techniques. In: Klute A (ed) Methods of soil analysis, part 1. Physical and mineralogical methods. ASA–SSSA, Madison, pp 331–362
Young MH, Moran E-A, Yu Z, Zhu J, Smith D-M (2009) Reducing saturated hydraulic conductivity of sandy soil with polyacrylamide. Soil Sci Soc Am J 73:13–20
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Rainer Horn
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bhardwaj, A.K., McLaughlin, R.A. & Levy, G.J. Depositional seals in polyacrylamide-amended soils of varying clay mineralogy and texture. J Soils Sediments 10, 494–504 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-010-0198-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-010-0198-2