Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Do implicit motives and basic psychological needs interact to predict well-being and flow? Testing a universal hypothesis and a matching hypothesis

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan in Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum Press, New York, 1985) suggests that certain experiences, such as competence, are equally beneficial to everyone’s well-being (universal hypothesis), whereas Motive Disposition Theory (McClelland in Human motivation. Scott, Foresman, Glenview, IL, 1985) predicts that some people, such as those with a high achievement motive, should benefit particularly from such experiences (matching hypothesis). Existing research on motives as moderators of the relationship between basic need satisfaction and positive outcomes supports both these seemingly inconsistent views. Focusing on the achievement motive, we sought to resolve this inconsistency by considering the specificity of the outcome variables. When predicting domain-specific well-being and flow, the achievement motive should interact with felt competence. However, when it comes to predicting general well-being and flow, felt competence should unfold its effects without being moderated by the achievement motive. Two studies confirmed these assumptions indicating that the universal and matching hypotheses are complementary rather than mutually exclusive.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. McAdams (1980) distinguished between the intimacy motive and the affiliation motive. The former is characterized by the desire for experiences of warmth and closeness in close dyadic relationships (partner, best friend) (McAdams 1992), whereas the affiliation motive is the desire to feel liked and accepted and enjoy the companionship of other persons or groups of persons (close or less close). Due to a large phenomenological overlap (e.g., both concepts involve the chronic desire to spend harmonious time with other people) later versions of affiliation motivation have combined features of both concepts into a single concept (called affiliation/intimacy, for example, by Winter 1991).

  2. When controlling for the participants’ age, the main effect of competence satisfaction remained stable (b = −.47, se b = .07, p < .001) and the ACH x ComNeedSat was not significant (b = −0.9, se b = .06, p = .11).

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alsleben, P. (2008). Das Bedürfnis nach Freiheit: Selbstintegration als viertes Basismotiv [The need for freedom: Self-integration as a fourth social motive]. Saarbrücken: VDM-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alsleben, Ph., & Kuhl, J. (2010). Touching a person’s essence: Using implicit motives as personal resources in counseling. In W. M. Cox & E. Klinger (Eds.), Handbook of motivational counseling: Motivating people for change (2nd ed., pp. 109–131). Sussex: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, J. W., & Feather, N. T. (Eds.). (1966). A theory of achievement motivation. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, J. W., Heyns, R. W., & Veroff, J. (1954). The effect of experimental arousal of the affiliation motive on thematic apperception. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49, 405–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baard, P. P., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Intrinsic need satisfaction: A motivational basis of performance and well-being in two work settings. Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 2045–2068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumann, N., Kazén, M., & Kuhl, J. (2010). Implicit motives: A look from personality systems interaction theory. In O. C. Schultheiss & J. C. Brunstein (Eds.), Implicit motives. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brunstein, J. C., & Heckhausen, H. (2008). Achievement motivation. In J. Heckhausen & H. Heckhausen (Eds.), Motivation and action (2nd ed., pp. 137–183). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Brunstein, J. C., & Maier, G. W. (2005). Implicit and self-attributed motives to achieve: Two separate but interacting needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(2), 205–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, P., Cohen, J., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis fort the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M., Abuhamdeh, S., & Nakamura, J. (2005). Flow. In A. J. Elliot & C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 598–608). New York: Guilford Publications, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • deCharms, R. (1968/1983). Personal causation. New York: Academic Press.

  • DeCharms, R. (1992). Personal causation and the origin concept. In C. Smith, J. W. Atkinson, & D. C. McClelland (Eds.), Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis (pp. 325–333). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • DeCharms, R., & Plimpton, F. (1992). The origin scoring system. In C. P. Smith (Ed.), Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis (pp. 334–375). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 38). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • French, E. G., & Chadwick, I. (1956). Some characteristics of affiliation motivation. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52, 296–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gable, S. L. (2006). Approach and avoidance social motives and goals. Journal of Personality, 74, 175–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gable, S. L., Reis, H. T., & Elliot, A. J. (2003). Evidence for bivariate systems: An empirical test of appetition and aversion across domains. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 349–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gagné, M. (2003). The role of autonomy support and autonomy orientation in prosocial behavior engagement. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 199–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen, J., & Heckhausen, H. (Eds.). (2010). Motivation and action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofer, J., & Busch, H. (2011). Satisfying one’s needs for competence and relatedness: Consequent domain-specific well-being depends on strength of implicit motives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(9), 1147–1158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Illardi, B. C., Leone, D., Kasser, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1993). Employee and supervisor ratings of motivation: Main effects and discrepancies associated with job satisfaction and adjustment in a factory setting. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1789–1805.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, D. N. (1984). Personality research form manual. Port Huron, MI: Research Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., Julian, T., Merritt, K., & Uswatte, G. (2006). Social anxiety and posttraumatic stress in combat veterens: Relations to well-being and character strengths. Behavior Research and Therapy, 44, 561–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasser, V., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). The relation of psychological needs for autonomy and relatedness to vitality, well-being, and mortality in a nursing home. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 935–954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kehr, H. M. (2004). Implicit/explicit motive discrepancies and volitional depletion among managers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 315–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krohne, H. W., Egloff, B., Kohlmann, W., & Tausch, A. (1996). Untersuchungen mit einer deutschen Version der PANAS. Diagnostica, 44, 139–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhl, J., & Scheffer, D. (2012). Auswertungsmanual für den Operanten Multi-Motiv Test (OMT)—revidierte Fassung [Scoring Manual of the Operant Multi-Motive Test (OMT)—revised version]. Osnabrück, Germany: University of Osnabrück.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langens, T. A., & Schmalt, H.-D. (2002). Emotional consequences of positive daydreaming: The moderating role of fear of failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1725–1735. doi:10.1177/014616702237653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langens, T. A., & Schmalt, H.-D. (2008). Motivational traits: New directions and measuring motives with the multi-motive grid (MMG). In G. J. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D. H. Saklofske (Eds.), Personality theory and assessment (pp. 523–544). London: Sage Publications Ldt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York: Harper.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, M. F., La Guardia, J. G., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). On being yourself in different cultures: Ideal and actual self-concept, autonomy support and well-being in China, Russia and the United States. The Journal of Positively Psychology, 4, 290–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P. (1980). A thematic coding system for the intimacy motive. Journal of Research in Personality, 14, 413–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P. (1992). The intimacy motive. In D. C. McClelland, J. Veroff, C. P. Smith, & J. W. Atkinson (Eds.), Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis (pp. 224–228). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C. (1985). Human motivation. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1953). The achievement motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96(4), 690–702.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pang, J. S., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2005). Assessing implicit motives in U. S. college students: Effects of picture type and position, gender and ethnicity, and cross-cultural comparisons. Journal of Personality Assessment, 85, 280–294.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Puca, R. M. (2005). The influence of the achievement motive on probability estimates in pre- and post-decisional action phases. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 245–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Puca, R. M., Rinkenauer, G., & Breidenstein, C. (2006). Individual differences in approach and avoidance movements: How the avoidance motive influences response force. Journal of Personality, 74(4), 979–1014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Puca, R. M., & Schmalt, H.-D. (1999). Task enjoyment: A mediator between achievement motives and performance. Motivation and Emotion, 23, 15–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reis, H. T., Sheldon, K. M., Gable, S. L., Roscoe, J., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 419–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rheinberg, F., Vollmeyer, R., & Engeser, S. (2003). Die Erfassung des Flow Erlebens [Measuring flow experience]. In J. Stiensmeier-Pelster & F. Rheinberg (Eds.), Diagnostik von Motivation und Selbstkonzept (pp. 261–279). Göttingen: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M. (1995). Psychological needs and the facilitation of integrative processes. Journal of Personality, 63, 397–427.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). Rochester, NY: Rochester University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2008). Self-determination theory and the role of basic psychological needs in personality and the organization of behavior. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, L. A. Pervin (Eds.) Handbook of personality psychology: Theory and research (3rd edn., pp. 654–678). xv, p 862. New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.

  • Ryan, R. M., & Grolnick, W. S. (1986). Origins and pawns in the classroom: Self-report and projective assessments of children’s perceptions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 550–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., La Guardia, J. G., Solky-Butzel, J., Chirkov, V. I., & Kim, Y. (2005). On the interpersonal regulation of emotions: Emotional reliance across gender, relationships, and cultures. Personal Relationships, 12, 145–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmalt, H.-D. (1999). Assessing the achievement motive using the grid technique. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 109–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K., & Schmalt, H. D. (2000). Motivation [Motivation]. Stuttgart (Germany): Kohlhammer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schüler, J. (2007). Arousal of flow-experience in a learning setting and its effects on exam-performance and affect. Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie, 21, 217–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schüler, J. (2010). Achievement incentives determine the effects of achievement-motive incongruence on flow experience. Motivation and Emotion, 34, 2–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schüler, J. (2012). The experience of basic need satisfaction as an activity-related incentive for implicit motives, in prep.

  • Schüler, J., & Brandstätter, V. (2012). How basic need satisfaction and dispositional motives interact in predicting flow experience in sport. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, in press.

  • Schüler, J., Job, V., Fröhlich, S., & Brandstätter, V. (2008). A high implicit affiliation motive does not always make you happy. Motivation and Emotion, 32, 231–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schüler, J., Sheldon, K. M., & Fröhlich, S. M. (2010). Implicit need for achievement moderates the relationship between felt competence and subsequent motivation. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O. C. (2008). Implicit motives. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 603–633). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O. C., & Brunstein, J. C. (1999). Goal imagery: Bridging the gap between implicit motives and explicit goals. Journal of Personality, 67, 1–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O. C., & Hale, J. (2007). Implicit motives modulate attentional orienting to facial expressions of emotion. Motivation and Emotion, 31, 13–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O. C., Liening, S., & Schad, D. (2008). The reliability of a picture story exercise measure of implicit motives: Estimates of internal consistency, retest reliability, and ipsative stability. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1560–1571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultheiss, O. C., & Pang, J. S. (2007). Measuring implicit motives. In R. W. Robins, R. C. Fraley, & R. Krueger (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 322–344). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M. (2004). Optimal human being: An integrated multi-level perspective. New Jersey: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., Cheng, C., & Hilpert, J. (2011). Understanding well-being and optimal functioning: Applying the multilevel personality in context (MPIC) model. Psychological Inquiry, 22, 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Filak, C. (2008). Manipulating autonomy, competence, and relatedness support in a game-learning context: New evidence that all three needs matter. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 267–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Niemiec, C. (2006). Its not just the amount that counts: Balanced need-satisfaction also affects well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 331–341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Schüler, J. (2011). Wanting, having, and needing: integrating motive disposition theory and self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(5), 1106–1123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sokolowski, K., & Kehr, H. M. (1999). Zum differentiellen Einfluss von Motiven auf die Wirkungen von Führungstrainings (MbO) [Differential impact of motive dispositions on the effects of management training (MbO)]. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 20, 192–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sokolowski, K., Schmalt, H.-D., Langens, T. A., & Puca, R. M. (2000). Assessing achievement, affiliation, and power motives all at once—the multi-motive grid (MMG). Journal of Personality Assessment, 74, 126–145.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spangler, W. D. (1992). Validity of questionnaire and TAT measures of need for achievement: Two meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 140–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vallerand, R. J. (1997). Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 29, 271–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Broek, A., Vansteenkiste, M., de Witte, H., Soenens, B., & Lens, W. (2010). Capturing autonomy, competende and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the work-related basic need satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 981–1002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Luyckx, K. (2006). Autonomy and relatedness among Chinese sojourners and applicants: Conflictual or independent predictors of well-being and adjustment? Motivation and Emotion, 30, 273–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vansteenkiste, M., Niemiec, C., & Soenens, B. (2010). The development of the five mini-theories of self-determination theory: An historical overview, emerging trends, and future directions. In T. Urdan & S. Karabenick (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement, vol. 16: The decade ahead (pp. 105–166). UK: Emerald Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological Review, 66, 297–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, G. C., Niemiec, C. P., Patrick, H., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The importance of supporting autonomy and perceived competence in facilitating long-term tobacco abstinence. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37, 315–324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winter, D. G. (1973). The power motive. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter, D. G. (1994). Manual for scoring motive imagery in running text. Unpublished instrument, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Snjezana Kovjanic for her great help in data collection.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sport Science, University of Berne, Bremgartenstrasse 135, 3012, Berne, Switzerland

    Julia Schüler

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Zürich, Binzmühlestrasse 14/6, 8050, Zurich, Switzerland

    Veronika Brandstätter

  3. University of Missouri, Missouri, MO, USA

    Kennon M. Sheldon

Authors
  1. Julia Schüler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Veronika Brandstätter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kennon M. Sheldon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julia Schüler.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Schüler, J., Brandstätter, V. & Sheldon, K.M. Do implicit motives and basic psychological needs interact to predict well-being and flow? Testing a universal hypothesis and a matching hypothesis. Motiv Emot 37, 480–495 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9317-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9317-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation