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Strain, Coping, and Socioeconomic Status: Coping Histories and Present Choices

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Abstract

Objectives

Using household survey data from three major cities in foreign countries, we add to research concerning General Strain Theory (GST) by focusing on aspects that have been ignored or under-researched. First, we address questions concerning SES variations in the operation of the processes of GST, with particular focus on whether various relationships specified by the theory are more likely in the lower SES group. Second, we explore the extent to which prior coping strategies influence subsequent coping choices. Finally, we seek to determine the links between SES, coping histories, and subsequent coping choices.

Methods

The study analyzes the effects of past and contemporaneous strain/negative emotions and prior coping efforts on various coping strategies across three SES groupings using negative binomial, ordered logit, and OLS regression.

Results

We find that, with some variations, the basic processes of GST are operative across all SES categories. However, whereas strain appears to have a moderate association with alcohol-related and criminal coping strategies, avoidant coping appears to be largely irrelevant for anybody who faces strain. Our data also demonstrate that specific forms of prior coping partially influence the types of coping employed later. But, with few exceptions, these effects are not more pronounced among those of lower SES.

Conclusion

In sum, our findings suggest that individuals in various SES groupings may prefer certain types of coping, whereas different types of attempted coping may predispose individuals to specific forms of subsequent adaptation.

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Notes

  1. Note, however, that as neither GST nor other extant studies suggest that previously used criminal coping may influence an individuals’ drinking behavior under stress, prior criminal coping is not considered as a moderator of strain/negative affect-projected alcohol coping relationships in this study.

  2. Data collection was performed by professional survey organizations in each country in the fall of 2006. The survey instrument was composed in English and translated into corresponding native languages. Linguists fluent in those languages and English then performed a reverse translation. The final versions were compared with the original to eliminate possible ambiguities in wording. Prior to conducting the survey, translated instruments were pretested on several residents from each participating site. The proportion of originally targeted individuals yielding an interview across the three countries is approximately 35 %, with the remainder being random replacements. This is in line with household surveys conducted in this fashion Eastern European countries (Kordos 2005; Mussino and van Raalte 2008) and the United States (Tittle et al. 2004).

  3. Although we observe few missing values (not more than 1 % for every question used in the study), we use the EM algorithm to impute all missing values.

  4. The fact that the associations between negative affect and measured strain are not larger suggests that some proportion of strains experienced probably does not lead to negative emotions. This finding may point to the importance of subjective strain measures—conditions deemed adverse by particular individuals—rather than the general strain measures employed in our study. However, the absence of subjective strain categories used in the majority of GST tests (but see Moon et al. 2009) does not seem fatal because our results are generally supportive of the main causal links specified by GST.

  5. As previously shown (Antonaccio et al. 2010), there is no link between SES and criminal outcomes in Greece and there is a positive relationship between SES and illegal activities in Russia and Ukraine. Because few significant differences in findings across the three countries were uncovered, we present the results in aggregate, controlling for country of residence in all our models.

  6. With the exception of two models (one predicting alcohol use in low SES group and another predicting crime in high SES groups), we found consistent evidence of significant mediation effects of negative emotions on the strain- deviance link using the Preacher and Hayes (2008) test.

  7. In country-specific analyses, we found a modest negative association between negative emotions and avoidant coping in Greece in lower and middle SES groups, whereas in Ukraine this association was significant and positive in middle and upper SES categories. No evidence of a statistically significant association between strain and avoidant coping was discovered in Russia.

  8. Relatively unimpressive goodness-of-fit measures in Table 2 (particularly in Panel 1, Table 2) may be explained by the lack of strong statistically significant relationships between strain/negative affect and various coping styles in the absence of other potentially important predictors of illegal and legal coping in the models. Although this may cast doubt on the predictive power of GST, it should be noted that McFadden’s pseudo R2 is not directly comparable to R2 in OLS regression (Long 1997) and should only be used as a general assessment of a model’s explanatory power. For instance, it has been suggested that any value of McFadden’s measure that falls between 0.20 to 0.40 may be indicative of excellent fit (McFadden 1977: 307).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Northeastern University, 425 Churchill Hall, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA

    Ekaterina V. Botchkovar

  2. Department of Sociology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

    Charles R. Tittle

  3. Department of Sociology, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA

    Olena Antonaccio

Authors
  1. Ekaterina V. Botchkovar
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  2. Charles R. Tittle
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  3. Olena Antonaccio
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Correspondence to Ekaterina V. Botchkovar.

Appendices

Appendix 1

See Table 6.

Table 6 Values of strain and negative emotions by across various socioeconomic status groups
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Appendix 2

See Table 7.

Table 7 Summary of findings
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Appendix 3

See Table 8.

Table 8 Measures of strain, non-criminal coping strategies, and criminal probability/self-reported criminal behavior used in analyses
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Botchkovar, E.V., Tittle, C.R. & Antonaccio, O. Strain, Coping, and Socioeconomic Status: Coping Histories and Present Choices. J Quant Criminol 29, 217–250 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-012-9177-7

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