Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Gated community and residential segregation in urban China

  • Published:
GeoJournal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research on gated community in Chinese cities has been growing very fast, but empirical studies are limited, especially those on the relationship between gated community and residential segregation. A retrospective questionnaire survey was conducted in three gated communities in Chongqing, China. The findings from the survey include that, after moving into the gated communities, many homeowners’ contact with other people decreases. It is also found that homeowners’ participation in local public affairs decreases. These results hold even when we compare with the reference group and control for duration of stay. They support the view that gated community aggravates residential segregation. However, the survey shows that many homeowners feel the income differences among the neighbors increase and the changes of several types of external activities don’t show a consistent pattern. All these empirical findings suggest that a complex relationship between gated community and residential segregation exists in urban China and the removal of work unit from the housing system affects people’s experience in gated community.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. MD is a planning concept that Chinese planners borrowed from former Soviet Union. It refers to a residential development with integrated design and planning at neighborhood scale. Nowadays it is mostly in the form of gated community.

  2. It is apparent from the definition that gated community is defined by “walled” and “gating”. Its social and economic characteristics are of second order. It is true that in the West it is largely associated with middle-upper class. But, that is not a necessary condition. Many low-income housing developments in Chinese cities are also in the form of gated community.

  3. Even after the economic reform started in 1979, the impact of work unit on housing is still very significant. For example, Huang and Clark (2002) analyzed a 1996 survey dataset and found that housing tenure choice was affected by work unit rank besides other variables. Since work unit rank was associated with its ability to build housing for the employees, this is clear evidence for my argument.

  4. Heterogeneity among homeowners does not necessarily mean they do not belong to the same social economic class. For example, income heterogeneity among the homeowners in one of our sample MDs is higher than in the era of work unit compound, but they obviously belong to middle-upper class.

  5. The sampling population is all households in the three MDs. The sampling frame is the households’ addresses.

  6. Renters are included in the survey. Since there are only 8 renters in the sample, it is safe to say that the sample is representative of homeowners.

  7. The mean value of the respondent’s monthly income in the reference group is 3.97, or close to 3000–4000 yuan per month, while that in the target group is only 2.83, or less than 2000 yuan per month.

  8. It might be argued that people have less contact with those outside their work unit when living in work-unit housing. After moving to gated community, they may be more in touch with people outside their work unit and residential segregation might actually be mitigated in this sense. I agree that it might be a channel for the effect of gated community but empirical evidence is absent.

References

  • Asiedu, A. B., & Arku, G. (2009). The rise of gated housing estates in Ghana: Empirical insights from three communities in metropolitan Accra. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 24(3), 227–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, R., & Flint, J. (2004). Fortress UK? Gated communities, the spatial revolt of the elites and time-space trajectories of segregation. Housing Studies, 19(6), 875–892.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barton, S. E., & Silverman, C. J. (1994). Common interest communities: Private governments and the public interest. Berkeley, CA: Institute of Governmental Studies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barzel, Y., & Sass, T. B. (1990). The allocation of resources by voting. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 105(3), 745–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blakely, E. J., & Snyder, M. G. (1999). Fortress America: Gated communities in the United States. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y. (2009). Stepping out of ‘the dilemma of collective action’: Institutional evaluation of the innovations in homeowners self-governance (Zhou Chu ‘Ji Ti Xing Dong De Kun Jing’: Ye Zhu Zi Zhu Zhi Li Chuang Xin De Zhi Du Ping Jia). In Y. Chen (Ed.), Diverse perspectives on community governance: Theory and practice (She Qu Zhi Li De Duo Yuan Shi Jiao: Li Lun Yu Shi Jian). Beijing: Peking University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deng, F. (2012). “Why don’t they set up an HOA? The Case of Three Communities in Chongqing, China.” SSRN Working Paper.

  • Dilger, R. J. (1992). Neighborhood politics: Residential Community Associations in American Governance. New York: New York University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dou, Q. (2010). From micro-district to gated community—The evolution of residential form in Beijing (Cong Xiao Qu Dao Men Jin She Qu—Bei Jing Zhu Qu Xing Tai De Yan Jin). Journal of Architecture (Jian Zhu Xue Bao), 2010(3), 7–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng, D., Breitung, W., & Zhu, H. (2011). Gated community and its neighborhood—The case of Lijiang Garden in Guangzhou (Zhu Zhai Jiao Qu Hua Bei Jing Xia Men Jin She Qu Yu Zhou Bian Ling Li Guan Xi—Yi Guang Zhou Li Jiang Hua Yuan Wei Li). Geographic Study (Di Li Yan Jiu), 30(1), 61–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foldvary, F. (1994). Public goods and private communities. Brookfield, VT: Edward Elgar Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fukuyama, F. (1995). Trust: The social virtues and the creation of prosperity. New York, NY: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, T. M. (2003). Crowd out or crowd in? The effects of common interest developments on political participation in California. The Annals of Regional Science, 37(2), 203–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu, F. L. K. (1963). Clan, caste and club. New York, NY: D. Van Nostrand Company Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Y. (2005). The pattern of urban residential segregation—An analysis of residential segregation in Shanghai (Cheng Shi Ju Zhu Ge Li De Mo Shi—Jian Xi Shang Hai Ju Zhu Ge Li De Xian Zhuang). Urban Planning Forum (Cheng Shi Gui Hua Xue Kan), 2005(2), 31–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Y. (2006). Collectivism, political control, and gating in Chinese cities. Urban Geography, 27(6), 507–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Y., & Clark, W. A. V. (2002). Housing tenure choice in transitional urban China: A multi-level analysis. Urban Studies, 39(1), 7–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Y., & Yi, C. (2009). Hukou, migration and residential segregation—An empirical study on the case of Wuhan (Hu Kou Qian Yi Yu Ju Zhu Fen Yi—Yi Wu Han Wei Li De Shi Zheng Yan Jiu). Urban Development Studies (Cheng Shi Fa Zhan Yan Jiu), 16(6), 36–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Y., & Li, Z. (2009). From gated community to chinese style conservation oriented community (Cong Men Jin She Qu Dao Zhong Guo Shi Jie Yue Xing She Qu). Times Architecture (Shi Dai Jian Zhu), 2009(2), 20–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Y., & Li, Z. (2010). Literature review of domestic and foreign studies on gated community since 1990s (20 Shi Ji 90 Nian Dai Yi Lai Feng Bi She Qu Guo Nei Wai Yan Jiu Shu Ping). Human Geography (Ren Wen Di Li), 25(3), 10–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Low, S. M. (2003). Behind the Gates: Life, security and the pursuit of happiness in fortress America. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manzi, T., & Smith-Bowers, B. (2005). Gated communities as club goods: Segregation or social cohesion? Housing Studies, 20(2), 345–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D., & Denton, N. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie, E. (1994). Privatopia. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miu, P. (2004). The cancer of urban life—Problems of and policies for gated community (Cheng Shi Sheng Huo De Ai Zheng—Feng Bi Shi Xiao Qu De Wen Ti Ji Dui Ce). Times Architecture (Shi Dai Jian Zhu), 2004(5), 46–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, R. H. (2009). The puzzle of local double taxation: Why do private community associations exist? The Independent Review, 13(3), 345–365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polanska, D. V. (2010). The Emergence of gated communities in post-communist urban context: And the reasons for their increasing popularity. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 25(3), 295–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pompe, J. (2008). The effect of a gated community on property and beach amenity valuation. Land Economics, 84(3), 423–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pow, C.-P. (2007). Securing the ‘Civilised’ Enclaves: Gated communities and the moral geographies of exclusion in (post-)socialist Shanghai. Urban Studies, 44(8), 1539–1558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qin, R., Yan, X., & Cao, X. (2008). Gated community and its governance in foreign cities (Guo Wai Cheng Shi Feng Bi She Qu Ji Qi Zhi Li). Economic Geography (Jing Ji Di Li), 28(3), 401–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read, B. L. (2008). Assessing variation in civil society organizations: China’s homeowner associations in comparative perspective. Comparative Political Studies, 41(9), 1240–1265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roitman, S. (2005). Who segregates whom? The analysis of a gated community in Mendoza, Argentina. Housing Studies, 20(2), 303–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roitman, S. (2013). Close but divided: How walls, fences and barriers exacerbate social differences and foster urban social group segregation. Housing, Theory and Society, 30(2), 156–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song, W. (2010). Progress of researches on gated community (Feng Bi She Qu Yan Jiu Jin Zhan). Urban Planning Forum (Cheng Shi Gui Hua Xue Kan), 2010(4), 42–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoyanov, P., & Frantz, K. (2006). Gated communities in Bulgaria: Interpreting a new trend in post-communist urban development. GeoJournal, 66(1/2), 57–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiebout, C. M. (1956). A pure theory of local expenditure. Journal of Political Economy, 64(5), 416–424.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vesselinov, E. (2008). Members only: Gated communities and residential segregation in the metropolitan United States. Sociological Forum, 23(3), 536–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. (2010). Research on current problems of and policies for gated communities in Chinese cities (Zhong Guo Cheng Shi Feng Bi Zhu Qu De Xian Zhuang Wen Ti Ji Qi Dui Ce Yan Jiu). Modern Urban Studies (Xian Dai Cheng Shi Yan Jiu), 2010(3), 85–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., & Murie, A. (1999). Housing policy and practice in China. London: MacMillan Press Ltd.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wei, W., & Qin, L. (2011). A study on gated community in the Chinese City (Dui Zhong Guo Cheng Shi Feng Bi Zhu Qu De Jie Du). Journal of Architecture (Jian Zhu Xue Bao), 2011(2), 5–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, F. (2005). Rediscovering the ‘Gate’ under Market Transition: From work-unit compounds to commodity housing enclaves. Housing Studies, 20(2), 235–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, M., & Yang, Z. (2008). Argument, misunderstanding and gap—Literature review on gated community from the perspective of urban design (Lun Zheng Wu Qu Kong Bai—Cong Cheng Shi She Ji Jiao Du Ping Shu Feng Bi Zhu Qu De Yan Jiu Xian Zhuang). International Urban Planning (Guo Ji Cheng Shi Gui Hua), 23(4), 24–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, M., & Yang, Z. (2010). Origin and nature: Gated community from the perspective of spatial political economy (Qi Yuan Yu Ben Zhi: Kong Jian Zheng Zhi Jing Ji Xue Shi Jiao Xia De Feng Bi Zhu Qu). Urban Planning Forum (Cheng Shi Gui Hua Xue Kan), 2010(4), 36–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, C., & Min, S. (2008). A theoretical framework and Chinese model of research on gated community (Men Jin She Qu Yan Jiu De Li Lun Kuang Jia Yu Zhong Guo Mo Xing). Huazhong Architecture (Hua Zhong Jian Zhu), 26(11), 139–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, K., & Zhang, P. (2010). Multi-perspective examination and reflection on the development of gated communities overseas (Guo Wai Men Jin She Qu Fa Zhan De Duo Shi Jiao Sheng Shi Yu Fan Si). Planner (Gui Hua Shi), 26(1), 86–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, K., Zhang, P., & Zhang, Z. (2009). The mechanism and trend of the privatization of urban community space—a study on foreign gated communities (Cheng Shi She Qu Kong Jian Si You Hua De Chan Sheng Ji Zhi Ji Fa Zhan Qu Shi—Yi Guo Wai Feng Bi She Qu Wei Yan Jiu Dui Xiang). Urban Development Studies (Cheng Shi Fa Zhan Yan Jiu), 16(6), 94–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeng, W. (2002). Community self-governance: Conflicts and responses—The story of the growth of a homeowners association (She Qu Zi Zhi: Chong Tu Yu Hui Ying—Yi Ge Ye Zhu Wei Yuan Hui De Cheng Zhang Li Cheng). Urban Problems (Cheng Shi Wen Ti), 2002(4), 53–56.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Financial support from Ministry of Education, P. R. China, Humanities and Social Science Research Planning Foundation (11YJAZH018) is gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Chongqing Technology & Business University, Chongqing, China

    Feng Deng

Authors
  1. Feng Deng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Feng Deng.

Ethics declarations

Research in this paper complies with the laws and ethical standards with regarding human participants. No animals were involved in the research. All informed consent from human participants were obtained during interviews and questionnaire survey.

Conflict of interest

This paper has no potential conflicts of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Deng, F. Gated community and residential segregation in urban China. GeoJournal 82, 231–246 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-015-9684-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-015-9684-9

Keywords

JEL Classification

Search

Navigation