Abstract
Blood–injection–injury (BII) phobia is a chronic and debilitating disorder, which has largely been neglected in the child literature. The present paper briefly reviews the aetiology of specific phobias with particular attention to BII and provides an integrated developmental model of this disorder in youth. Evidence-based treatments for child-specific phobias are discussed, and the development of a modified one session treatment (OST) approach to enhance treatment outcomes for BII phobia in children and adolescents is described. This approach is illustrated in two children with a primary diagnosis of BII phobia. The cases illustrate the unique challenges associated with treating BII in youth and the need for a modified intervention. Modifications included addressing the role of pain (e.g., psychoeducation, more graduated exposure steps) and disgust (e.g., disgust eliciting exposure tasks) in the expression of the phobia and fainting in the maintenance of this phobia. Moreover, it is recommended that parents be more actively involved throughout treatment (e.g., education session prior to OST, contingency management training, guidance regarding planning exposure tasks following treatment) and for families to participate in a structured e-therapy maintenance programme post-treatment.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Task Force.
Antony, M. M., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1997). Heterogeneity among specific phobia types in DSM-IV. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(12), 1089–1100.
Antony, M. M., & Watling, M. A. (2006). Overcoming medical phobias: How to conquer fear of blood, needles, doctors, and dentists. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Armstrong, T., Hemminger, A., & Olatunji, B. O. (2013). Attentional bias in injection phobia: Overt components, time course, and relation to behavior. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51(6), 266–273. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2013.02.008.
Arntz, A., van Eck, M., & Heijmans, M. (1990). Predictions of dental pain: the fear of any expected evil, is worse than the evil itself. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28(1), 29–41.
Ayala, E. S., Meuret, A. E., & Ritz, T. (2009). Treatments for blood-injury-injection phobia: A critical review of current evidence. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43(15), 1235–1242. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.04.008.
Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 1.
Barlow, D. H. (2004). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. New York: Guilford press.
Biederman, J., Rosenbaum, J. F., Bolduc-Murphy, E. A., Faraone, S. V., Chaloff, J., Hirshfeld, D. R., & Kagan, J. (1993). A 3-year follow-up of children with and without behavioral inhibition. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32(4), 814–821. doi:10.1097/00004583-199307000-00016.
Biederman, J., Rosenbaum, J. F., Hirshfeld, D. R., Faraone, S. V., Bolduc, E. A., Gersten, M., et al. (1990). Psychiatric correlates of behavioral inhibition in young children of parents with and without psychiatric disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47(1), 21–26.
Bienvenu, O. J., & Eaton, W. W. (1998). The epidemiology of blood–injection–injury phobia. Psychological Medicine, 28(05), 1129–1136.
Bögels, S. M., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. L. (2006). Family issues in child anxiety: Attachment, family functioning, parental rearing and beliefs. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(7), 834–856. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.08.001.
Breinholst, S., Esbjørn, B. H., Reinholdt-Dunne, M. L., & Stallard, P. (2012). CBT for the treatment of child anxiety disorders: A review of why parental involvement has not enhanced outcomes. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26(3), 416–424. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.12.014.
Burstein, M., Georgiades, K., He, J.-P., Schmitz, A., Feig, E., Khazanov, G. K., & Merikangas, K. (2012). Specific phobia among US adolescents: Phenomenology and typology. Depression and Anxiety,. doi:10.1002/da.22008.
Byrne, S. P., Rapee, R. M., Malhi, G., Sweller, N., & Hudson, J. (2014). An examination of harm beliefs in children with dog phobia. Thesis Submitted as part of a Doctor of Philosophy, Macquarie University.
Caseras, X., Giampietro, V., Lamas, A., Brammer, M., Vilarroya, O., Carmona, S., et al. (2010). The functional neuroanatomy of blood–injection–injury phobia: A comparison with spider phobics and healthy controls. Psychological Medicine, 40(1), 125–134. doi:10.1017/s0033291709005972.
Chambless, D. L., Baker, M. J., Baucom, D. H., Beutler, L. E., Calhoun, K. S., Crits-Christoph, P., et al. (1998). Update on empirically validated therapies, II. Clinical Psychologist, 51(1), 3–16.
Chambless, D. L., & Ollendick, T. H. (2001). Empirically supported psychological interventions: Controversies and evidence. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 685–716. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.685.
Cisler, J. M., & Koster, E. H. W. (2010). Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in the anxiety disorders: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 203. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.003.
Connolly, J., Hallam, R. S., & Marks, I. M. (1976). Selective association of fainting with blood-injury-illness fear. Behavior Therapy, 7(1), 8–13. doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(76)80214-6.
Cowart, M. J. W., & Ollendick, T. H. (2013). Specific Phobias. In C. A. Essau & T. H. Ollendick (Eds.), The treatment of childhood and adolescent anxiety (pp. 353–368). West Sussex: Wiley.
Dadds, M. R., Barrett, P. M., Rapee, R. M., & Ryan, S. (1996). Family process and child anxiety and aggression: An observational analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24(6), 715–734. doi:10.1007/bf01664736.
Davis, T. E, I. I. I., Ollendick, T. H., Reuther, E. T., & Muson, M. S. (2012). One-session treatment: Principles and procedures with children and adolescents. In T. E. Davis III, T. H. Ollendick, & L. G. Öst (Eds.), Intensive one-session treatment of specific phobias (pp. 19–42). New York: Springer.
de Jong, P. J., & Merckelbach, H. (1998). Blood–injection–injury phobia and fear of spiders: Domain specific individual differences in disgust sensitivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 24(2), 153–158. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00178-5.
de Jong, P. J., & Muris, P. (2002). Spider phobia: Interaction of disgust and perceived likelihood of involuntary physical contact. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16(1), 51–65. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(01)00089-5.
de Jongh, A., Muris, P., Schoenmakers, N., & Horst, G. T. (1995). Negative cognitions of dental phobics: Reliability and validity of the Dental Cognitions Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(5), 507–515. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00081-T.
Del Casale, A., Ferracuti, S., Rapinesi, C., Serata, D., Piccirilli, M., Savoja, V., et al. (2012). Functional neuroimaging in specific phobia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 202(3), 181–197.
Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (2000). Frequency, comorbidity, and psychosocial impairment of specific phobia in adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(2), 221–231. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp2902_8.
Farrell, L. J., Waters, A. M., Milliner, E. L., Zimmer-Gembeck, M., McConnell, H., Tiralongo, E. et al. (2013). D-Cycloserine augmented one session treatment of pediatric specific phobia. Paper presented at the 7th World Congress of Behavioural and Cognitive Therapies, Lima, Peru.
Flatt, N., & King, N. J. (2010). Brief psycho-social interventions in the treatment of specific childhood phobias: A controlled trial and a 1-year follow-up. Behaviour Change, 27(3), 130–153. doi:10.1375/bech.27.3.130.
Fox, E., Russo, R., Bowles, R., & Dutton, K. (2001). Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(4), 681–700. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.681.
Fredrikson, M., Annas, P., & Wik, G. (1997). Parental history, aversive exposure and the development of snake and spider phobia in women. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(1), 23–28. doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(96)00076-9.
Fyer, A. J., Mannuzza, S., Chapman, T. F., Martin, L. Y., & Klein, D. F. (1995). Specificity in familial aggregation of phobic disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(7), 564–573.
Fyer, A. J., Mannuzza, S., Gallops, M. S., Martin, L. Y., Aaronson, C., Gorman, J., et al. (1990). Familial transmission of simple phobias and fears: A preliminary report. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47(3), 252–256. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810150052009.
Gar, N. S., & Hudson, J. L. (2009). The association between maternal anxiety and treatment outcome for childhood anxiety disorders. Behaviour Change, 26(01), 1–15. doi:10.1375/bech.26.1.1.
Gilchrist, P. T., McGovern, G. E., Bekkouche, N., Bacon, S. L., & Ditto, B. (2015). The vasovagal response during confrontation with blood-injury-injection stimuli: The role of perceived control. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 31, 43–48.
Ginsburg, G. S., Siqueland, L., Masia-Warner, C., & Hedtke, K. A. (2004). Anxiety disorders in children: Family matters. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 11(1), 28–43. doi:10.1016/S1077-7229(04)80005-1.
Gullone, E. (2000). The development of normal fear: A century of research. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(4), 429–451. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00034-3.
Haberkamp, A., & Schmidt, T. (2014). Enhanced visuomotor processing of phobic images in blood-injury-injection fear. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28(3), 291–300. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.02.001.
Hellström, K., Fellenius, J., & Öst, L. G. (1996). One versus five sessions of applied tension in the treatment of blood phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(2), 101–112. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(95)00060-7.
Hudson, J. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2001). Parent–child interactions and anxiety disorders: An observational study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(12), 1411–1427. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00107-8.
Hudson, J. L., & Rapee, R. M. (2002). Parent–child interactions in clinically anxious children and their siblings. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31(4), 548–555. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3104_13.
Jones, M. K., & Menzies, R. G. (2000). Danger expectancies, self-efficacy and insight in spider phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(6), 585–600. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00076-5.
Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., Clarke, C., Snidman, N., & Garcia-Coll, C. (1984). Behavioral inhibition to the unfamiliar. Child Development, 55, 2212–2225.
Kane, E. J., Braunstein, K., Ollendick, T. H., & Muris, P. (2014). Relations of anxiety sensitivity, control beliefs, and maternal over-control to fears in clinic-referred children with specific phobia. Journal of Child and Family Studies,. doi:10.1007/s10826-014-0014-5.
King, N. J., Clowes-Hollins, V., & Ollendick, T. H. (1997). The etiology of childhood dog phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(1), 77. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(96)00067-8.
King, N. J., Muris, P., & Ollendick, T. H. (2004). Specific Phobias. In T. L. Morris & J. S. March (Eds.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents (2nd ed., pp. 263–279). New York: Guilford Press.
LeBaron, S., & Zelter, L. (1984). Assessment of acute pain and anxiety in children and adolescents by self-reports, observer reports, and a behavior checklist. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52(5), 729.
Leutgeb, V., Schäfer, A., Köchel, A., & Schienle, A. (2012). Exposure therapy leads to enhanced late frontal positivity in 8- to 13-year-old spider phobic girls. Biological Psychology, 90(1), 97–104. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.02.008.
Leutgeb, V., & Schienle, A. (2012). Changes in facial electromyographic activity in spider-phobic girls after psychotherapy. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46(6), 805–810. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.02.017.
Lipsitz, J. D., Barlow, D. H., Mannuzza, S., Hofmann, S. G., & Fyer, A. J. (2002). Clinical features of four DSM-IV-specific phobia subtypes. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190(7), 471–478.
Lumley, M. A., & Melamed, B. G. (1992). Blood phobics and nonphobics: Psychological differences and affect during exposure. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30(5), 425–434. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(92)90026-D.
Marks, I. (1988). Blood-injury phobia: A review. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145(10), 1207–1213.
Marshall, W. L., Bristol, D., & Barbaree, H. E. (1992). Cognitions and courage in the avoidance behavior of acrophobics. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30(5), 463–470. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(92)90030-K.
Menzies, R. G., & Clarke, J. C. (1995). The etiology of phobias: A nonassociative account. Clinical Psychology Review, 15(1), 23–48. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(94)00039-5.
Menzies, R. G., Harris, L. M., & Jones, M. K. (1998). Evidence from three fearful samples for a poor insight type in specific phobia. Depression and Anxiety, 8(1), 29–32. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1998)8:1<29:AID-DA6>3.0.CO;2-0.
Merckelbach, H., Muris, P., & Schouten, E. (1996). Pathways to fear in spider phobic children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(11–12), 935–938.
Milliner, E. L., & Farrell, L. J. (2014). Intensive cognitive behavioural treatment for specific phobia in children and adolescents. Psychopathology Review, 1, 175–181.
Milliner, E. L., Farrell, L. J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2013). Phobic anxiety. In P. Graham & S. Reynolds (Eds.), Cognitive behaviour therapy for children and families (3rd ed., pp. 255–274). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2006). Time course of attentional bias for fear-relevant pictures in spider-fearful individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(9), 1241–1250. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.05.003.
Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Miles, F., & Dixon, R. (2004). BRIEF REPORT time course of attentional bias for threat scenes: Testing the vigilance–avoidance hypothesis. Cognition and Emotion, 18(5), 689–700. doi:10.1080/02699930341000158.
Moretz, M. W., Rogove, J., & McKay, D. (2011). The role of disgust in childhood anxiety disorders. In D. McKay & E. A. Storch (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent anxiety disorders (pp. 155–170). New York: Springer.
Muris, P., & Field, A. P. (2008). Distorted cognition and pathological anxiety in children and adolescents. Cognition and Emotion, 22(3), 395–421. doi:10.1080/02699930701843450.
Muris, P., & Merckelbach, H. (2001). The etiology of childhood specific phobia: A multifactorial model. In M. W. Vasey & M. R. Dadds (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 355–385). New York: Oxford University Press.
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., de Jong, P. J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2002). The etiology of specific fears and phobias in children: A critique of the non-associative account. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(2), 185–195. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00051-1.
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Gadet, B., & Moulaert, V. (2000). Fears, worries, and scary dreams in 4- to 12-year-old children: Their content, developmental pattern, and origins. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(1), 43–52. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp2901_5.
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Holdrinet, I., & Sijsenaar, M. (1998). Treating phobic children: Effects of EMDR versus exposure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(1), 193–198. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.1.193.
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Schmidt, H., & Tierney, S. (1999a). Disgust sensitivity, trait anxiety and anxiety disorders symptoms in normal children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37(10), 953–961. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00045-5.
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Van Haaften, H., & Mayer, B. (1997). Eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing versus exposure in vivo: A single-session crossover study of spider-phobic children. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 171(1), 82–86. doi:10.1192/bjp.171.1.82.
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Wessel, I., & van de Ven, M. (1999b). Psychopathological correlates of self-reported behavioural inhibition in normal children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37(6), 575–584. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00155-7.
Muris, P., van der Heiden, S., & Rassin, E. (2008). Disgust sensitivity and psychopathological symptoms in non-clinical children. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 39(2), 133–146. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.02.001.
Oar, E. L., Farrell, L. J., Waters, A. M., & Ollendick, T. H. (submitted). Blood-injection-injury phobia and dog phobia in youth: Psychological characteristics and associated features in a clinical sample. Behavior Therapy.
Olatunji, B. O., & Cisler, J. M. (2009). Disgust sensitivity: Psychometric overview and operational definition. In B. O. Olatunji & D. McKay (Eds.), Disgust and its disorders: Theory, assessment, and treatment implications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Olatunji, B. O., Lohr, J. M., Sawchuk, C. N., & Patten, K. (2007a). Fear and disgust responding to heterogeneous blood–injection–injury stimuli: Distinctions from anxiety symptoms. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(1), 1–8.
Olatunji, B. O., Smits, J. A. J., Connolly, K., Willems, J., & Lohr, J. M. (2007b). Examination of the decline in fear and disgust during exposure to threat-relevant stimuli in blood–injection–injury phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21(3), 445–455. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.05.001.
Ollendick, T. H., Halldorsdottir, T., Fraire, M. G., Austin, K. E., Noguchi, R. J. P., Lewis, K. M., et al. (2015). Specific phobias in youth: A randomized controlled trial comparing one-session treatment to a parent-augmented one-session treatment. Behavior Therapy, 46, 141–155.
Ollendick, T. H., & Muris, P. (2015). The scientific legacy of Little Hans and Little Albert: Future direction for research on specific phobias in youth. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 44(4), 689–706.
Ollendick, T. H., Öst, L. G., Reuterskiold, L., Costa, N., Cederlund, R., Sirbu, C., et al. (2009). One-session treatment of specific phobias in youth: A randomized clinical trial in the United States and Sweden. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(3), 504–516. doi:10.1037/a0015158.
Ollendick, T. H., Raishevich, N., Davis, T. E, I. I. I., Sirbu, C., & Öst, L. G. (2010). Specific phobia in youth: Phenomenology and psychological characteristics. Behavior Therapy, 41(1), 133–141. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2009.02.002.
Öst, L. G. (1989). One-session treatment for specific phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 27(1), 1–7. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(89)90113-7.
Öst, L. G. (1991). Acquisition of blood and injection phobia and anxiety response patterns in clinical patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29(4), 323–332. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(91)90067-d.
Öst, L. G. (1992). Blood and injection phobia: Background and cognitive, physiological, and behavioral variables. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(1), 68–74.
Öst, L. G., Brandberg, M., & Alm, T. (1997). One versus five sessions of exposure in the treatment of flying phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(11), 987–996. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00077-6.
Öst, L. G., Fellenius, J., & Sterner, U. (1991a). Applied tension, exposure in vivo, and tension-only in the treatment of blood phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29(6), 561–574. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(91)90006-o.
Öst, L. G., & Hellström, K. (1997). Blood–Injury–Injection Phobia. In G. C. L. Davey (Ed.), Phobias: A handbook of theory, research, and treatment (pp. 63–80). Chichester: Wiley.
Öst, L. G., Hellström, K., & Kåver, A. (1992). One versus five sessions of exposure in the treatment of injection phobia. Behavior Therapy, 23(2), 263–281. doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80385-5.
Öst, L. G., Lindahl, I. L., Sterner, U., & Jerremalm, A. (1984a). Exposure in vivo versus applied relaxation in the treatment of blood phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22(3), 205–216. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(84)90001-9.
Öst, L. G., Salkovskis, P. M., & Hellström, K. (1991b). One-session therapist-directed exposure versus self-exposure in the treatment of spider phobia. Behavior Therapy, 22(3), 407–422. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(05)80374-0.
Öst, L. G., & Sterner, U. (1987). A specific behavioral method for treatment of blood phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25(1), 25–29. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(87)90111-2.
Öst, L. G., Sterner, U., & Fellenius, J. (1989). Applied tension, applied relaxation, and the combination in the treatment of blood phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 27(2), 109–121. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(89)90069-7.
Öst, L. G., Sterner, U., & Lindahl, I. L. (1984b). Physiological responses in blood phobics. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 22(2), 109–117. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(84)90099-8.
Öst, L. G., Svensson, L., Hellstrom, K., & Lindwall, R. (2001). One-session treatment of specific phobias in youths: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(5), 814–824.
Page, A. C. (1994). Blood–injury phobia. Clinical Psychology Review, 14(5), 443–461. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(94)90036-1.
Page, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (1998). Testing a genetic structure of blood–injury–injection fears. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 81(5), 377–384.
Page, A. C., & Tan, B. J. (2009). Disgust and blood–injury–injection phobia. In B. O. Olatunji & D. McKay (Eds.), Disgust and its disorders: Theory, assessment, and treatment implications (pp. 191–209). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Phillips, M. L., Fahy, T., David, A. S., & Senior, C. (1998). Disgust: The forgotten emotion of psychiatry. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 373–375. doi:10.1192/bjp.172.5.373.
Rachman, S. (1976). The passing of the two-stage theory of fear and avoidance: Fresh possibilities. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 14(2), 125–131. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(76)90066-8.
Rachman, S. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15(5), 375–387. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(77)90041-9.
Rachman, S., & Cuk, M. (1992). Fearful distortions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30(6), 583–589. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(92)90003-Y.
Reuterskiold, L., & Öst, L. G. (2012). Real world applcations of one-session treatment. In T. E. Davis III, T. H. Ollendick, & L. G. Öst (Eds.), Intensive one-session treatment of specific phobias (pp. 127–141). New York: Springer.
Ritz, T., Meuret, A. E., & Ayala, E. S. (2010). The psychophysiology of blood–injection–injury phobia: Looking beyond the diphasic response paradigm. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 78(1), 50–67. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.05.007.
Rudy, B. M., & Davis, T. E, I. I. I. (2012). Interventions for specific phobia in special populations. In T. E. Davis III, T. H. Ollendick, & L. G. Öst (Eds.), Intensive one-session treatment of specific phobias (pp. 19–42). New York: Springer.
Sanders, M. R., & Jones, L. (1990). Behavioural treatment of injection, dental and medical phobias in adolescents: A case study. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 18(04), 311–316. doi:10.1017/S0141347300010417.
Sawchuk, C. N., Lohr, J. M., Lee, T. C., & Tolin, D. F. (1999). Exposure to disgust-evoking imagery and information processing biases in blood–injection–injury phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37(3), 249–257.
Sawchuk, C. N., Lohr, J. M., Tolin, D. F., Lee, T. C., & Kleinknecht, R. A. (2000). Disgust sensitivity and contamination fears in spider and blood–injection–injury phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(8), 753–762.
Sawchuk, C. N., Lohr, J. M., Westendorf, D. H., Meunier, S. A., & Tolin, D. F. (2002). Emotional responding to fearful and disgusting stimuli in specific phobics. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(9), 1031–1046.
Severeijns, R., Vlaeyen, J. W., van den Hout, M. A., & Weber, W. E. (2001). Pain catastrophizing predicts pain intensity, disability, and psychological distress independent of the level of physical impairment. Clinical Journal of Pain, 17(2), 165–172.
Silverman, W. K., & Albano, A. M. (1996). The anxiety disorders interview schedule for DSM-IV-child and parent versions. London: Oxford University Press.
Silverman, W. K., Kurtines, W. M., Ginsburg, G. S., Weems, C. F., Rabian, B., & Serafini, L. T. (1999). Contingency management, self-control, and education support in the treatment of childhood phobic disorders: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(5), 675–687.
Smith, N. B., & Meuret, A. E. (2012). The role of painful events and pain perception in blood–injection–injury fears. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43(4), 1045–1048. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.03.006.
Taddio, A., Ipp, M., Thivakaran, S., Jamal, A., Parikh, C., Smart, S., et al. (2012). Survey of the prevalence of immunization non-compliance due to needle fears in children and adults. Vaccine, 30(32), 4807–4812. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.05.011.
Thompson, A. (1999). Cognitive-behavioural treatment of blood–injury–injection phobia: A case study. Behaviour Change, 16(03), 182–190. doi:10.1375/bech.16.3.182.
Thyer, B. A., Himle, J., & Curtis, G. C. (1985). Blood–injury–illness phobia: A review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41(4), 451–459. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198507)41:4<451:aid-jclp2270410402>3.0.co;2-o.
Tolin, D. F., Lohr, J. M., Sawchuk, C. N., & Lee, T. C. (1997). Disgust and disgust sensitivity in blood–injection–injury and spider phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(10), 949–953. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00048-X.
Van Houtem, C. M. H. H., Laine, M. L., Boomsma, D. I., Ligthart, L., van Wijk, A. J., & De Jongh, A. (2013). A review and meta-analysis of the heritability of specific phobia subtypes and corresponding fears. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27(4), 379–388. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.04.007.
Waters, A. M., Bradley, B. P., & Mogg, K. (2014a). Biased attention to threat in paediatric anxiety disorders (generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, specific phobia, separation anxiety disorder) as a function of ‘distress’ versus ‘fear’ diagnostic categorization. Psychological Medicine, 44(03), 607–616. doi:10.1017/S0033291713000779.
Waters, A. M., Farrell, L. J., Zimmer-Gembeck, M., Milliner, E. L., Tiralongo, E., Donovan, C. L. et al. (2014b). Augmenting one session treatment of children’s specific phobias with attention training towards positive stimuli. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 62, 107–119.
Weems, C. F., & Silverman, W. K. (2006). An integrative model of control: Implications for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 91(2), 113–124. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.01.009.
Weems, C. F., Silverman, W. K., Rapee, R. M., & Pina, A. A. (2003). The role of control in childhood anxiety disorders. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(5), 557–568. doi:10.1023/A:1026307121386.
Wei, C., & Kendall, P. C. (2014). Parental involvement: Contribution to childhood anxiety and its treatment. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17(4), 319–339. doi:10.1007/s10567-014-0170-6.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Oar, E.L., Farrell, L.J. & Ollendick, T.H. One Session Treatment for Specific Phobias: An Adaptation for Paediatric Blood–Injection–Injury Phobia in Youth. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 18, 370–394 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0189-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0189-3