Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Ironic Effects of Sexual Minority Group Membership: Are Lesbians Less Susceptible to Invoking Negative Female Stereotypes than Heterosexual Women?

Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The traditional stereotype of the typical woman has been described as “nice, but incompetent.” However, such general gender stereotypes are applied to individual targets only under certain conditions: They are used to “fill in the blanks” (Heilman, 2012) if little personal information is provided about a target. “Typical lesbians” are regarded to have more typically masculine (agentic) characteristics such as task competence than the typical woman does. We thus hypothesized that if a woman displays behavior coinciding with the stereotype of the typical woman, it is more readily interpreted as stereotypically female if performed by a heterosexual woman than by a lesbian. Participants (N = 296) read a hypothetical job interview in which we manipulated the target’s sexual orientation (between subjects). Findings demonstrated that a lesbian was judged as more competent than a heterosexual woman in the presence of behavior that may be interpreted as gender-stereotypical (Experiments 1 and 2). This difference in competence judgments was not found in the absence of gender-stereotypical behavior (Experiment 1). Judging the heterosexual woman as low in masculinity was related to a judgment of lower competence (Experiment 2). Our findings demonstrate that there are conditions under which lesbians, a group often stereotyped negatively, are less susceptible to invoking negative female stereotypes than heterosexual women are.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. All materials are available from the first or second author upon request.

  2. No statistically significant effects on communion were obtained in the present research; items and findings are available from the authors upon request.

References

  • Abele, A. E., & Wojciszke, B. (2007). Agency and communion from the perspective of self versus others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 751–763. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.751.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bahns, A. J., & Branscombe, N. R. (2011). Effects of legitimizing discrimination against homosexuals on gay bashing. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 388–396. doi:10.1002/ejsp.784.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banse, R., & Gawronski, B. (2003). Die Skala Motivation zu vorurteilsfreiem Verhalten: Psychometrische Eigenschaften und Validität [The scale Motivation to Behave in Nonprejudiced Ways: Psychometric properties and validity]. Diagnostica, 49, 4–13. doi:10.1026/0012-1924.49.1.4.

  • Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162. doi:10.1037/h0036215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blashill, A. J., & Powlishta, K. K. (2009). Gay stereotypes: The use of sexual orientation as a cue for gender-related attributes. Sex Roles, 61, 783–793. doi:10.1037/a0014583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brambilla, M., Carnaghi, A., & Ravenna, M. (2011). Status and cooperation shape lesbian stereotypes: Testing predictions from the stereotype content model. Social Psychology, 42, 101–110. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000054.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, N., & Fuqua, D. R. (2003). The structure of the Bem Sex Role Inventory: A summary report of 23 validation studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 872–887. doi:10.1177/0013164403258235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crow, S. M., Fok, L. Y., & Hartman, S. J. (1998). Who is at greatest risk of work-related discrimination—women, blacks, or homosexuals? Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 11, 15–26. doi:10.1023/A:1027319915725.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dasgupta, N., & Rivera, L. M. (2006). From automatic antigay prejudice to behavior: The moderating role of conscious beliefs about gender and behavioral control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 268–280. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dunton, B. C., & Fazio, R. H. (1997). An individual difference measure of motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 316–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573–598. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 735–754. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.735.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebert, I. D., Steffens, M. C., & Kroth, A. (2014). Warm, but maybe not so competent?—Contemporary implicit stereotypes of women and men in Germany. Sex Roles, 70, 359–375. doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0369-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fassinger, R. E. (1996). Notes from the margins: Integrating lesbian experience into the vocational psychology of women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48, 160–175. doi:10.1006/jvbe.1996.0016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878–902. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, S. T., Lin, M., & Neuberg, S. L. (1999). The continuum model: Ten years later. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 231–254). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuegen, K., Biernat, M., Haines, E., & Deaux, K. (2004). Mothers and fathers in the workplace: How gender and parental status influence judgments of job-related competence. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 737–754. doi:10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00383.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glick, P., Zion, C., & Nelson, C. (1988). What mediates sex discrimination in hiring decisions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 178–186. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.2.178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2013). Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology,. doi:10.1111/bmsp.12028.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hebl, M. R., Foster, J. B., Mannix, L. M., & Dovidio, J. F. (2002). Formal and interpersonal discrimination: A field study of bias toward homosexual applicants. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 815–825. doi:10.1177/0146167202289010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. Research in Organizational Behavior, 5, 269–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Research in Organizational Behavior, 32, 113–135. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.5.3.665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heilman, M. E., & Okimoto, T. G. (2008). Motherhood: A potential source of bias in employment decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 189–198. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 19–22. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horvath, M., & Ryan, A. M. (2003). Antecedents and potential moderators of the relationship between attitudes and hiring discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Sex Roles, 48, 115–130. doi:10.1023/A:1022499121222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E. (1996). Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexual persons, behaviors, and civil rights: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 336–353. doi:10.1177/0146167296224002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lilling, A. H., & Friedman, R. C. (1995). Bias towards gay patients by psychoanalytic clinicians: An empirical investigation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 24, 563–570. doi:10.1007/BF01541835.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2008). Sex differences and sexual orientation differences in personality: Findings from the BBC internet survey. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 173–187. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9267-z.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Locksley, A., Borgida, E., Brekke, N., & Hepburn, C. (1980). Sex stereotypes and social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 821–831. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.5.821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madson, L. (2000). Inferences regarding the personality traits and sexual orientation of physically androgynous people. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 148–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohr, J. J., Israel, T., & Sedlacek, W. E. (2001). Counselors’ attitudes regarding bisexuality as predictors of counselors’ clinical responses: An anlogue study of a female bisexual client. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 212–222. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.48.2.212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, M. A., & Morrison, T. G. (2011). Sexual orientation bias toward gay men and lesbian women: Modern homonegative attitudes and their association with discriminatory behavioral intentions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41, 2573–2599. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00838.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peplau, L. A., & Fingerhut, A. (2004). The paradox of the lesbian worker. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 719–735.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pichler, S., Varma, A., & Bruce, T. (2010). Heterosexism in employment decisions: The role of job misfit. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40, 2527–2555. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00669.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 811–832. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.3.811.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (1999). Feminized management and backlash toward agentic women: The hidden costs to women of a kinder, gentler image of middle managers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1004–1010. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 743–762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sczesny, S. (2003). Führungskompetenz: Selbst-und Fremdwahrnehmung weiblicher und männlicher Führungskräfte. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 34, 133–145. doi:10.1024//0044-3514.34.3.133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sczesny, S., Bosak, J., Neff, D., & Schyns, B. (2004). Gender stereotypes and the attribution of leadership traits: A cross-cultural comparison. Sex Roles, 51, 631–645. doi:10.1007/s11199-004-0715-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sczesny, S., & Stahlberg, D. (2002). The influence of gender-stereotyped perfumes on leadership attribution. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 815–828. doi:10.1002/ejsp.123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steffens, M. C., Schult, J. C., & Ebert, I. D. (2009). Feminization of management leads to backlash against agentic applicants: Lack of social skills, not gender, determines low hireability judgments in student samples. Psychology Science Quarterly, 51, 16–46. doi:10.1037/t03782-000.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilcsik, A. (2011). Pride and prejudice: Employment discrimination against openly gay men in the United States. American Journal of Sociology, 117, 586–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Hoye, G., & Lievens, F. (2003). The effects of sexual orientation on hirability ratings: An experimental study. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18, 15–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, T. (2011). A “lesbian advantage”?: Analysing the intersections of gender, sexuality and class in male-dominated work. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion Journal, 30, 686–701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Parts of this research were presented at the Conference of the European Academy of Management, Valencia, Spain, June 4–7, 2014. The writing of this article was supported by a grant from the German Research Foundation to the second and last authors (DFG STE 938/11-1). We thank Marcel Cattarius and Erin Thompson for valuable comments on a previous version of this article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claudia Niedlich.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Niedlich, C., Steffens, M.C., Krause, J. et al. Ironic Effects of Sexual Minority Group Membership: Are Lesbians Less Susceptible to Invoking Negative Female Stereotypes than Heterosexual Women?. Arch Sex Behav 44, 1439–1447 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0412-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0412-1

Keywords

Navigation