Abstract
This study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of two programs developed by the Frostig Center Research Department to improve the reading and spelling of students with learning disabilities (LD): a computer Speech Recognition-based Program (SRBP) and a computer and text-based Automaticity Program (AP). Twenty-eight LD students with reading and spelling difficulties (aged 8 to 18) received each program for 17 weeks and were compared with 16 students in a contrast group who did not receive either program. After adjusting for age and IQ, both the SRBP and AP groups showed significant differences over the contrast group in improving word recognition and reading comprehension. Neither program showed significant differences over contrasts in spelling. The SRBP also improved the performance of the target group when compared with the contrast group on phonological elision and nonword reading efficiency tasks. The AP showed significant differences in all process and reading efficiency measures.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackerman, P. T., & Dykman, R. A. (1993). Phonological processes, confrontation naming, and immediate memory in dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 597–609.
Ball, E. W., & Blachman, B. A. (1988). Phoneme segmentation training: Effect on reading readiness. Annals of Dyslexia, 38, 208–225.
Bereiter, C., Adams, M. J., Pressley, M., Rait, M., Case, R., McKeough, A., Hirshberg, J., Scardamalia, M., Brown, A., Campione, J., Carruthers, I., & Treadway, G. H. (2000). Open court. Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw Hill.
Bowers, P. G. (1993). Text reading and rereading: Predictors of fluency beyond word recognition. Journal of Reading Behavior, 25, 133–153.
Brown, I. S., & Felton, R. H. (1990). Effects of instruction on beginning reading skills in children at risk for reading disability. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2, 223–241.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (Eds.). (1993). The powers of literacy: A genre approach to teaching writing. London: Falmer Press.
Crowell, C. E., & Mosenfelder, D. (1993). Reading attainment system. New York: Educational Design, Inc.
Cunningham, P. M., & Hall, D. P. (1994). Making words. Torrance, CA: Frank Schaffer Publications, Inc.
Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1976). Rapid automatized naming (R.A.N.): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471–479.
Elkind, J., Cohen, K., & Murray, C. (1993). Using computer-based readers to improve reading comprehension of students with dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 43, 238–259.
Engelmann, S., Meyer, L., Johnson, G., and Carnine, L. (1998). Corrective reading skill applications. (Decoding B1, B2, and C). Chicago, IL: Science Research Associates, Inc.
Felton, R. H. (1993). Effects of instruction on the decoding skills of children with phonological-processing problems. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 583–589.
Fischer, P. (1995). Speed drills for decoding automaticity. Farmington, ME: Oxton House Publishers.
Fischer, P. (1999). Getting up to speed. Perspectives 25, 12–13.
Follansbee, R. (2000). Speaking to write: Realizing the potential of speech recognition for secondary students with disabilities. http.//www.edc.org/spk2wrt/bob.html.
Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 37–55.
Fry, E. B., Kress, J. E., & Fountoukidis, D. L. (1993). The reading teacher’s book of lists (3rd ed.). West Nyack, NY: The Center for Applied Research in Education.
Fulk, B. M. (1997). Think while you spell: A cognitive motivational approach to spelling instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 29(4), 70–71.
Gerber, M. M., & Hall, R. J. (1989). Cognitive-behavioral training in spelling for learning handicapped students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, 159–171.
Graham, S., & Voth, V. P. (1990). Spelling instruction: Making modifications for students with learning disabilities. Academic Therapy, 25(4), 447–457.
Hall, N., & Price, R. (1998). Explode the code. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Services.
Hatcher, P., Hulme, C., & Ellis, A. W. (1994). Ameliorating early reading failure by integrating the teaching of reading and phonological skills: The phonological linkage hypothesis. Child Development, 65, 41–57.
Hecker, L., Burns, L., Elkind, J., Elkind, K., & Katz, L. (2002). Benefits of assistive reading software for students with attention disorders. Annals of Dyslexia, 52, 243–272.
Henry, M. K., & Redding, N. C. (1996). Patterns for success in reading and spelling: A multisensory approach to teaching phonics and word analysis. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Heshusius, L. (1984). Why would they and I want to do it? A phenomenological-theoretical view of special education. Learning Disability Quarterly, 7, 363–368.
Higgins, E. L., and Raskind, M. H. (1997). The compensatory effectiveness of optical character recognition/speech synthesis on the reading comprehension of post-secondary students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8, 75–87.
Higgins, E. L., & Raskind, M. H. (2000). Speaking to read: A comparison of continuous vs. discrete speech recognition in the remediation of learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 15, 19–30.
Hillerich, R. L. (1927). A writing vocabulary of elementary children. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.
Jaspars, J., Jernigan, M., Yoon, E., & King, S. (2001). Developing first-grade reading fluency through peer mediation. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, 90–93.
Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (1998). Kaufman test of educational achievement. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Services.
Kurzweil Educational Systems. (1998). Kurzweil 3000TM. Waltham, MA: Kurzweil Educational Systems.
Leong, C. K. (1992). Enhancing reading comprehension with text-to-speech (DECtalk) computer system. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4, 205–217.
Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., & Liberman, A. M. (1989). The alphabetic principal and learning to read. In D. Shankweiler & I. Y. Liberman (Eds.), Phonology and reading disability. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
Lovett, M. W., Borden, S. L., Lacerenza, L., Benson, N. J., & Brackstone, D. (1994). Treating the core deficits of developmental dyslexia: Evidence of transfer of learning after phonologically and strategy-based reading training programs. Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 805–822.
Lovett, M. W., Lacerenza, L., & Borden, S. L. (2000). Putting struggling readers on the PHAST track: A program to integrate phonological and strategy-based remedial reading instruction and maximize outcomes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 458–476.
Lundberg, I. (1995). The computer as a tool of remediation in the education of students with reading disabilities—A theory-based approach. Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 89–99.
Lundberg, I., Frost, J., & Petersen, O. P. (1988). Effects of an extensive program for stimulating phonological awareness in preschool children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 263–284.
Lundberg, I., & Olofsson, A. (1993). Can computer speech support reading comprehension? Computers in Human Behavior, 9, 282–293.
MacArthur, C. A., & Cavalier, A. R. (2002). Dictation and speech recognition technology as accommodations in large-scale assessments for students with learning disabilities. http://www.state.de.us/aab/DSTP research.html, Attachment #11.
Mathes, P. G., Fuch, D., Fuch, L. S., Henley, A. M., & Sanders, A. (1994). Increasing strategic reading practice with Peabody classwide peer tutoring. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 9, 44–48.
Meyer, M. S., Wood, F. B., Hart, L. A., & Felton, R. H. (1998). The selective predictive values in rapid automatized naming within poor readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 106–117.
Microsoft PowerPoint®. (1998). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
Microsoft Windows®. (1998). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corportation.
Microsoft Word® for Windows®. (1997). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corportation.
Microsoft Word®. (2000). Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level [computer software]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
Mohr, L. L. (1995, April). Teaching diverse learners in inclusive settings: Steps for adapting instruction. Paper presented at the 73rd Annual International Convention of the Council for Exceptional Children, Indianapolis, IN.
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD). (1994). Learning disabilities issue on definition. In Collective perspectives on issues affecting learning disabilities: Position papers and statements (pp. 62–66). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Olson, R. K., & Wise, B. W. (1992). Reading on the computer with orthographic and speech feedback. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4, 107–144.
Perfetti, C. A., Beck, I., Bell, L., & Hughes, C. (1987). Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 283–319.
Poplin, M. (1988). The reductionist fallacy in learning disabilities: Replicating the past by reducing the present. Learning Disability Quarterly 7, 389–400.
Rashotte, C. A., & Torgesen, J. K. (1985). Repeated reading and reading fluency in learning disabled children. Reading Research Quarterly 20, 180–188.
Rasinski, T. (2001, April). Revisiting reading rate as a diagnostic tool for reading difficulties. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA.
Raskind, M. H., & Higgins, E. L. (1999). Speaking to read: The effects of speech recognition technology on the reading and spelling performance of children with learning disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia 49, 251–282.
Raskind, M. H., Higgins, E. L., Slaff, N. B., & Shaw, T. K. (1999). Assistive technology in the homes of children with learning disabilities: An exploratory study. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 47–55.
Samuels, S. J. (1984). Automaticity and repeated reading. In J. Osborn, P. T. Wilson, & R. C. Anderson (Eds.), Reading education: Foundations for a literate America (pp. 124–144). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Spring, C., & Perry, L. (1983). Naming speed and serial recall in poor and adequate readers. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8, 141–145.
Stahl, S., Heubach, K., & Crammond, B. (1997). Fluency-oriented reading instruction. Reading Research Report, 79, 1–38.
Thaler, V., Ebner, E. M., Wimmer, H., & Landerl, K. (2004). Training reading fluency in dysfluent readers with high reading accuracy: Word specific effects but low transfer to untrained words. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 89–113.
Torgesen, J. K. (1995). A model of memory from an information processing perspective: The special case of phonological memory. In G. R. Lyon & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Attention, memory, and executive function: Issues in conceptualization and measurement (pp. 157–184). Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks Publishing.
Torgesen, J. K., Alexander, A. W., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Voeller, K. K., & Conway, T. (2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 33–58, 78.
Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1997). Prevention and remediation of severe reading disabilities: Keeping the end in mind. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 217–234.
Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1999). Test of word reading efficiency. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Torgesen, J., Wagner, R., Rashotte, C., Rose, E., Lindamood, P., Conway, T., & Garvan, C. (1999). Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities: Group and individual responses to instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579–593.
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1994). The development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bi-directional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30, 78–87.
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1999). The comprehensive test of phonological processing. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Wechsler, D. (1974). Wechsler intelligence scale for children-Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler intelligence scale for children-III. New York: Psychological Corporation.
Wiederholt, J. L. (1986) Formal reading inventory. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Wilkinson, G. S. (1993). Wide range achievement test-3 (WRAT-3). Wilmington, DE: Wide Range, Inc.
Wise, B. W., Ring, J., & Olson, R. K. (1999). Training phonological awareness with and without explicit attention to articulation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 271–304.
Wise, B. W., Ring, J., & Olson, R. K. (2000). Individual differences in gains from computer-assisted remedial reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 197–235.
WizCom Technologies, Ltd. (2000). The quicktionary reading pen. Acton, MA: WizCom Technologies, Ltd.
Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). Reading fluency and its intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 211–238.
Wolf, M., Miller, L., & Donnelly, K. (2000). Retrieval, automaticity, vocabulary elaboration, orthography (RAVE-O): A comprehensive, fluency-based reading intervention program. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 375–386.
Worthy, J. (1996). A matter of interest: Literature that hooks reluctant readers and keeps them reading. Reading Teacher, 50, 204–212.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Higgins, E.L., Raskind, M.H. Speech recognition-based and automaticity programs to help students with severe reading and spelling problems. Ann. of Dyslexia 54, 365–388 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-004-0017-9
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-004-0017-9