Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Caffeine can decrease subjective energy depending on the vehicle with which it is consumed and when it is measured

  • Original Investigation
  • Published:
Psychopharmacology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rationale

Energy drinks contain glucose and caffeine, although in the longer term both adversely influence blood glucose homeostasis, with the unconsidered potential to have adverse consequences for cognition and mood.

Objective

The objective of this study was to consider the influence on interstitial glucose levels, mood and cognition of drinks differing in their caffeine content and glycaemic load.

Methods

Ninety minutes after a standard breakfast, a yoghurt-, glucose- or water-based drink, with or without 80 mg of caffeine, was consumed.

Results

The consumption of caffeine negatively influenced glucose homeostasis: that is, irrespective of the vehicle, caffeine consumption resulted in elevated levels of blood glucose throughout the study. Thirty minutes after consuming caffeine and water, rather than water alone, greater subjective energy was reported. However, after 90 and 150 min, caffeine administered in water increased tiredness, hostility and confusion. In contrast, combining caffeine with a yoghurt-based drink increased energy, agreeableness and clearheadedness later in the morning. There were no effects of caffeine on ratings of mood when it was taken with glucose. Caffeine, irrespective of vehicle, resulted in better memory, quicker reaction times in the choice reaction time test and the working memory task, and better and quicker responses with the vigilance task.

Conclusion

Further research should consider how caffeine interacts with macronutrients and the timescale over which such effects occur.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adan A, Serra-Grabulosa JM (2010) Effects of caffeine and glucose, alone and combined, on cognitive performance. Hum Psychopharmacol 25:310–317

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Addicott MA, Laurienti PJ (2009) A comparison of the effects of caffeine following abstinence and normal caffeine use. Psychopharmacol (Berl) 207:423–431

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alford C, Cox H, Wescott R (2001) The effects of red bull energy drink on human performance and mood. Amino Acids 21:139–150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benton D (2002) Carbohydrate ingestion, blood glucose and mood. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26:293–308

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benton D, Ruffin MP, Lassel T, Nabb S, Messaoudi M, Vinoy S, Desor D, Lang V (2003) The delivery rate of dietary carbohydrates affects cognitive performance in both rats and humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 166:86–90

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benton D, Maconie A, Williams C (2007) The influence of the glycaemic load of breakfast on the behaviour of children in school. Physiol Behav 92:717–724

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Donohoe RT, Benton D (2000) Glucose tolerance predicts performance on tests of memory and cognition. Physiol Behav 71:395–401

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dye L, Gilsenan MB, Quadt F, Martens VE, Bot A, Lasikiewicz N, Camidge D, Croden F, Lawton C (2010) Manipulation of glycemic response with isomaltulose in a milk-based drink does not affect cognitive performance in healthy adults. Mol Nutr Food Res 54:506–515

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksen BA, Eriksen CW (1974) Effects of noise letters upon identification of a target letter in a non-search task. Percept Psychophys 16:143–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Giles GE, Mahoney CR, Brunyé TT, Gardony AL, Taylor HA, Kanarek RB (2012) Differential cognitive effects of energy drink ingredients: caffeine, taurine, and glucose. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 102:569–577

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glade MJ (2010) Caffeine—not just a stimulant. Nutrition 26:932–938

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Graham TE, Sathasivam P, Rowland M, Marko N, Greer F, Battram D (2001) Caffeine ingestion elevates plasma insulin response in humans during an oral glucose tolerance test. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 79:559–565

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heckman MA, Weil J, Gonzalez de Mejia E (2010) Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) in foods: a comprehensive review on consumption, functionality, safety, and regulatory matters. J Food Sci 75:R77–R87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hindmarch I, Rigney U, Stanley N, Quinlan P, Rycroft J, Lane J (2000) A naturalistic investigation of the effects of day-long consumption of tea, coffee and water on alertness, sleep onset and sleep quality. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 149:203–216

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horne JA, Reyner LA (2001) Beneficial effects of an “energy drink” given to sleepy drivers. Amino Acids 20:83–89

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyland A, Lawton CL, Dye L (2008) Acute effects of macronutrient manipulations on cognitive test performance in healthy young adults: a systematic research review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 32:72–85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ingwersen J, Defeyter MA, Kennedy DO, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB (2007) A low glycaemic index breakfast cereal preferentially prevents children’s cognitive performance from declining throughout the morning. Appetite 49:240–244

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen AR (1987) Individual differences in the Hick paradigm. In: Vernon PA (ed) Speed of information-processing and intelligence. Ablex, New Jersey, pp 101–175

  • Kennedy DO, Scholey AB (2004) A glucose-caffeine ‘energy drink’ ameliorates subjective and performance deficits during prolonged cognitive demand. Appetite 42:331–333

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liguori A, Hughes JR (1997) Caffeine self-administration in humans: 2. A within-subjects comparison of coffee and cola vehicles. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 5:295–303

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liguori A, Hughes JR, Grass JA (1997a) Absorption and subjective effects of caffeine from coffee, cola and capsules. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 58:721–726

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liguori A, Hughes JR, Oliveto AH (1997b) Caffeine self-administration in humans: 1. Efficacy of cola vehicle. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 5:286–294

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loke WH (1988) Effects of caffeine on mood and memory. Physiol Behav 44:367–372

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lorist MM, Tops M (2003) Caffeine, fatigue, and cognition. Brain Cogn 53:82–94

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews DR, Holman RR, Bown E, Steemson J, Watson A, Hughes S, Scott D (1987) Pen-sized digital 30-second blood glucose meter. Lancet 1(8536):778–779

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer FP, Canzler E, Giers H, Walther H (1991) Time course of inhibition of caffeine elimination in response to the oral depot contraceptive agent. Hormonal contraceptives and caffeine elimination. Zentralbl Gynakol 113:297–302

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Micha R, Rogers PJ, Nelson M (2011) Glycaemic index and glycaemic load of breakfast predict cognitive function and mood in school children: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 106:1552–1561

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moisey LL, Kacker S, Bickerton AC, Robinson LE, Graham TE (2008) Caffeinated coffee consumption impairs blood glucose homeostasis in response to high and low glycemic index meals in healthy men. Am J Clin Nutr 87:1254–1261

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nabb S, Benton D (2006a) The influence on cognition of the interaction between the macro-nutrient content of breakfast and glucose tolerance. Physiol Behav 87:16–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nabb SL, Benton D (2006b) The effect of the interaction between glucose tolerance and breakfasts varying in carbohydrate and fibre on mood and cognition. Nutr Neurosci 9:161–168

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nehlig A (2010) Is caffeine a cognitive enhancer? J Alzheimers Dis 20(Suppl 1):S85–S94

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papanikolaou Y, Palmer H, Binns MA, Jenkins DJ, Greenwood CE (2006) Better cognitive performance following a low-glycaemic-index compared with a high-glycaemic-index carbohydrate meal in adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia 49:855–862

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pizziol A, Tikhonoff V, Paleari CD, Russo E, Mazza A, Ginocchio G, Onesto C, Pavan L, Casiglia E, Pessina AC (1998) Effects of caffeine on glucose tolerance: a placebo-controlled study. Eur J Clin Nutr 52:846–849

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quinlan P, Lane J, Aspinall L (1997) Effects of hot tea, coffee and water ingestion on physiological responses and mood: the role of caffeine, water and beverage type. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 134:164–173

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quinlan PT, Lane J, Moore KL, Aspen J, Rycroft JA, O’Brien DC (2000) The acute physiological and mood effects of tea and coffee: the role of caffeine level. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 66:19–28

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reyner LA, Horne JA (2002) Efficacy of a ‘functional energy drink’ in counteracting driver sleepiness. Physiol Behav 75:331–335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers PJ, Smith JE (2011) Caffeine, mood and cognition. In: Benton D (ed) Lifetime nutritional influences on cognition, behaviour and psychiatric illness. Woodhead Publishing, Oxford, pp 251–271

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Scholey AB, Kennedy DO (2004) Cognitive and physiological effects of an “energy drink”: an evaluation of the whole drink and of glucose, caffeine and herbal flavouring fractions. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 176:320–330

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serra-Grabulosa JM, Adan A, Falcón C, Bargalló N (2010) Glucose and caffeine effects on sustained attention: an exploratory fMRI study. Hum Psychopharmacol 25:543–552

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smit HJ, Cotton JR, Hughes SC, Rogers PJ (2004) Mood and cognitive performance effects of “energy” drink constituents: caffeine, glucose and carbonation. Nutr Neurosci 7:127–139

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith A (2002) Effects of caffeine on human behavior. Food Chem Toxicol 40:1243–1255

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith B, Amanda O, Mark M, Heather J, Thom W (2004) Arousal and behavior: biopsychological effects of caffeine. In: Astrid N (ed) Coffee, tea, chocolate and the brain, vol. 2. CRC, London, pp 35–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Sünram-Lea SI, Owen-Lynch J, Robinson SJ, Jones E, Hu H (2012) The effect of energy drinks on cortisol levels, cognition and mood during a fire-fighting exercise. Psychopharmacology 219:83–97

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van den Eynde F, van Baelen PC, Portzky M, Audenaert K (2008) The effects of energy drinks on cognitive performance. Tijdschr Psychiatr 50:273–281

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warburton DM, Bersellini E, Sweeney E (2001) An evaluation of a caffeinated taurine drink on mood, memory and information processing in healthy volunteers without caffeine abstinence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 158:322–328

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Lori Button and Kim Jenkins for their assistance with data collection and processing. The generosity of Brian Tiplady in making available the serial sevens and arrow flankers tests is gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Swansea, Wales, UK

    H. A. Young & D. Benton

Authors
  1. H. A. Young
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. D. Benton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to D. Benton.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Young, H.A., Benton, D. Caffeine can decrease subjective energy depending on the vehicle with which it is consumed and when it is measured. Psychopharmacology 228, 243–254 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3025-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3025-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation