Abstract
Horse culture was introduced to China from the West. The combination of the rod-shaped metal horse-bit with cheek-pieces with projections came from the West to become the origin of the horse harness in China. There, in the Shang period, the chain type horse bit was invented, which developed with some further transformations through the Spring and Autumn period. Before the Warring States period, a horse bit deriving from another technical tradition was introduced that replaced the earlier tradition. Bone-horn cheek-pieces with three holes of different directions came from the West at about the beginning of the Western Zhou period, and their bronze imitation became the mainstream of later cheek-pieces. The earliest metal horse bit in the Ukraine, dated to the end of the Bronze Age, could be the result of influence from the East. An innovation in the horse harness, with cheek-pieces inserted into the outer rings of the bit, is recognized in both the Steppe region and China, with the examples from China being earlier. A similar method of casting horse bits is recognized in Siberia and Central Asia from the earliest period of the early nomad period. It is the same as the later Chinese technology. Siberian nomads probably transferred it to the nomads of Northern China, for example, in the Yuhuangmiao Culture, then nomadic groups of Northern China introduced it to the peoples of the Central Plain.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Beijing 1976: Beijing shi wen wu guan li chu 北京市文物管理処. 1976. “Beijing di qu de you yi zhong yao kao gu shou huo―Changping Baifu Xi Zhou mu guo mu de xin qi shi 北京地区的又一重要考古収获—昌平白浮西周木椁墓的新启示 (Another important archaeological discovery in Beijing― new find of wooden chamber tombs of the Western Zhou period in Changping Baifu).” Kao gu 考古 1976.4: 246–258, 228, pls. 1–4.
Beijing 1993: Beijing da xue kao gu xi 北京大学考古系 and Shanxi sheng kao gu yan jiu suo 山西省考古研究所. 1993. “1992 nian chun Tianma – Qucun yi zhi mu cang fa jue bao gao 1992曲年春天马-曲村遗址墓葬発掘报告 (Excavation of site and tombs in Tianma Qucun in the spring of 1992).” Wen wu 文物 1993.3: 11–30.
Beijing 1995: Beijing shi wen wu yan jiu suo 北京市文物研究所. 1995. Liulihe Xi Zhou Yan guo mu di 1973–1977 琉璃河西周燕国墓地1973–1977 (Yan state cemetery of the Western Zhou period at Liulihe, 1973–1977). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.
Beijing 2007: Beijing shi wen wu yan jiu suo (editor). 2007. Jundushan mu di: Yuhuangmiao 军都山墓地:玉皇庙 (The cemetery at Jundushan: Yuhuangmiao). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.
Berezanskaja, S.S., and Viktor Klocko. 1998. Das Gräberfeld von Hordeevka. Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf GmbH.
Bobomulloev, Saïdmurād. 1997. Ein bronzezeitliches Grab aus Zardča Chalifa bei Pendžikent (Zeravšan-Tal). Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan Band 29: 121–138.
Chlenova, N. L. 1994: Членова, Н. Л. 1994. Pamyatniki kontsa epokhi bronzui v Zapadnoi Sibiri Памятники конца эпохи бронзы в Западной Сибири (Archaeological sites and objects of the end of Bronze Age in Western Siberia). Moscow: Pushchinskii nauchnuii tsentr RAN.
Dikov N. N. 1958: Диков, Н. Н. 1958. Bronzovuii vek Zabaikal'ya Бронзовый век Забайкалья (The Bronze Age of Transbaikalie). Ulan-Ude: Buryatskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo.
Gansu 2009: Gansu sheng wen wu kao gu yan jiu suo 甘粛省文物考古研究所 (editor). 2009. Chongxin Yujiawan Zhou mu 崇信于家湾周墓 (Zhou tombs at Yujiawan, Chongxin County). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.
Grach, A. D. 1980: Грач, А. Д. 1980. Drevnie kochevniki v tsentre Azii Древние кочевники в центре Азии (Ancient nomads in the center of Asia). Moscow: Nauka.
Grishin, Yu. S. 1960: Гришин, Ю. С. 1960 “Proizvodstvo v tagarskuyu epokhu, Производство в тагарскую эпоху (Production of Tagar period)”, in: Grishin Yu. S. and Tikhonov B. G., Гришин Ю.С. и Тихонов Б. Г., Ocherki po istorii proizvodstvo v Priural’ya i Yuzhnoi Sibiri v epokhu bronzui i rannevo zheleza.. Очерки по истории производства в Приуралье и Южной Сибири в эпоху бронзы и раннего железа (МИА No.90), pp.116–206.
Gryaznov, M. P. 1980: Грязнов, М.П. 1980. Arzhan. Tsarskii kurgan ranneskifskovo vremeni. Аржан. Царский курган раннескифкого времени. (Arzhan. Royal burial mound of early Scythian period). Leningrad: Nauka.
Henan 1999: Henan sheng wen wu kao gu yan jiu suo 河南省文物考古研究所 and Sanmenxia shi wen wu gong zuo dui 三门峡市文物工作队. 1999. Sanmenxia Guo guo mu, vol. 1 三门峡虢国墓 (第一巻) (Tombs of the Guo state in Sanmenxia). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.
Henan 2003: Henan bo wu yuan 河南博物院 and Taibei guo li li shi bo wu guan 台北国立歴史博物馆. 2003. Huixian Liulige Jia Yi liang mu 辉県琉璃阁甲乙二墓 (The Jia and Yi Tombs in Liulige, Huixian). Zhengzhou: Da xiang chu ban she.
Henan 2012: Henan sheng wen wu kao gu yan jiu suo and Pingdingshan shi wen wu guan li ju 平顶山市文物管理局 (eds). 2012. Pingdingshan Yin guo mu di 1 平顶山応国墓地I (Ying state cemetery in Pingdingshan). Zhengzhou: Da xiang chu ban she.
Hüttel, Hans-Georg 1979. “Zur westlichen Komponente des chinesischen Pferd Wagen-Komplexes der Shang- und frühen Chou Zeit.” Beiträge zur allgemeinen und vergleichenden Archäologie 1: 1–29. Deutches Archaeologisches Institut.
Hüttel, Hans-Georg. 1981. Bronzezeitliche Trensen in Mittel- und Osteuropa. Grundzüge ihrer Entwicklung. Prähistorische Bronzefunde. Abteilung XVI・Band 2. München: C.H. Beck.
Hwang, Ming-chorng 2015: 黃銘崇. 2015. “Ye tan suo wei ‘shao xing qi’ yi ji zao qi E’erduosi wen hua jun ren men de ‘wu zhuang hua’ yu ‘yi dong hua’ wen ti 也談所謂「勺形器」以及早期卾爾多斯文化群人們的「武装化」與「移動化」問題 (Arguments about so-called spoon-shaped objects, and also problems of early Ordos bronze peoples’ armament and migration).” Gu jin lun heng 古今論衡 26: 78–100.
Iessen, A. A. 1953: Иессен, А. А. 1953. K voprosu o pamyatnikakh VIII-VII vv. do n.e. na yuge Evropeiskoi chasti SSSR. К вопросу о памятниках VIII-VII вв. до н.э. на юге Европейской части СССР (On the problem of archaeological objects of 8–7 cc B. C. in the south of European part of USSR). Sovetskaya arkheologiya Советская археология XVIII, pp.49–110.
Jettmar, Karl. 1972. “The Thraco-Cimmerian phase in Central Asia: Evidence for the ‘Pontic Migration.” In: Early Chinese Art and Its Possible Influence in the Pacific Basin, pp. 231–240. New York: Intercultural Press.
Jinzhou shi bo wu guan 錦州市博物館. 1960 Liaoning sheng Jinxi xian Wu jin tang dong zhou mu tiao cha ji 辽宁省锦西县乌金塘东周墓调查记 (Investigation of an Eastern Zhou tomb in Wu jin tang, Jin xi, Liao ning) Kao gu 考古 1960–5, pp.7–9, Pl.2.
Jixian wen wu gong zuo zhan 吉県文物工作站. 1985. “Shanxi Jixian chu tu Shang dai qing tong qi 山西吉県出土商代青铜器 (Shang period bronzes unearthed from Jixian, Shanxi Province).” Kao gu 考古 1985.9: 848–849.
Kaoguyanjiusuo 1981: Zhongguo she hui ke xue yuan kao gu yan jiu suo Dong bei gong zuo dui 中国社会科学院考古研究所东北工作队. 1981. “Neimenggu Ningcheng Nanshangen 102 hao shi guo mu 内蒙古宁城南山根102号石椁墓 (Excavation of stone slab tomb no. 102 in Nanshangen, Ningcheng, Neimenggu).” Kao gu 1981.4: 304–308.
Kaoguyanjiusuo 1984: Zhongguo she hui ke xue yuan kao gu yan jiu suo Anyang gong zuo dui 中国社会科学院考古研究所安阳工作队. 1984. “Yin xu xi qu fa xian yi zuo che ma keng 殷墟西区発现一座车马坑 (A pit with chariot and horses found in Western District of Yinxu).” Kao gu 1984.6: 505–509.
Kaoguyanjiusuo 1987: Zhongguo she hui ke xue yuan kao gu yan jiu suo Fenghao gong zuo dui 中国社会科学院考古研究所沣镐工作队. 1987. “1984–1985 nian Fengxi Xi Zhou yi zhi mu zang fa jue bao gao 1984–85年沣西西周遗址・墓葬发掘报告 (Excavation of Western Zhou period site and tombs in Fengxi in the years 1984–85).” Kao gu 1987.1: 15–32.
Kaoguyanjiusuo 1999: Zhongguo she hui ke xue yuan kao gu yan jiu suo 中国社会科学院考古研究所. 1999. Zhangjiapo Xi Zhou mu di 张家坡西周墓地 (Excavation of the Western Zhou period cemetery in Zhangjiapo). Beijing: Zhong guo da bai ke quan shu chu ban she.
Kaoguyanjiusuo 2005: Zhongguo she hui ke xue yuan kao gu yan jiu suo 中国社会科学院考古研究所. 2005. Tengzhou Qianzhangda mu di 滕州前掌大墓地 (Tengzhou Qianzhangda cemetery). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.
Kilyushin et al. 1997: Килюшин, Ю.Ф., Тишкин, А. А. 1997. Skifskaya epokha Gornovo Altaya. Chast’ 1. Kul’tura naseleniya v ranneskifskoe vremya. Скифская эпоха Горного Алтая. Часть I. Культура населения в раннескифское время (Scythian period of Mountainous Altai, Part 1, Culture of the peoples in early Scythian period). Barnaul: Izdatel'stvo Altaiskovo gosudarstvennovo universiteta.
Klochko et al. 2011: Клочко, В. И. Козыменко, А. И. 2011. Nash nedavnii bronzovuii vek Наш недавний бронзовый век (Our recent Bronze Age). Kiev: Geneza.
Leskov, A. M. 1964: Лесков, А.М. 1964. “Drevneishie rogovuie psalii iz Trakhtemirova. Древнейшие роговые псалии из Трахтемирова (Most ancient horn cheek-pieces from Trakhtemirov).” Sovetskaya arkheologiya Советская археология 1964.1: 299–303.
Littauer, M.A., and J.H. Crouwel. 2001. The earliest evidence for metal bridle bits. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 20 (4): 329–338.
Liu, Bing 刘冰 (editor). 2007. Chifeng bo wu guan wen wu dian cang 赤峰博物馆文物典蔵 (The illustrated catalogue of cultural relics collection in the Chifeng Museum). Hohhot : Yuan fang chu ban she.
Liu, Shi’e 刘士莪 (editor). 2001. Laoniupo 老牛坡. Xi’an: Shaanxi ren min chu ban she.
Lu, Liancheng 卢连成 and Hu Zhisheng 胡智生. 1988. Baoji Yu guo mu di 宝鸡
国墓地 (Cemetery of Yu State in Baoji). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.Luoyang 1995: Luoyang shi wen wu gong zuo dui 洛阳市文物工作队. 1995. “Luoyang dong jiao C5M906 hao Xi Zhou mu 洛阳东郊C5M906号西周墓 (Excavation of Western Zhou period tomb C5M906 in eastern suburbs of Luoyang).” Kao gu 1995.9: 788–791, 801.
Luoyang 1999: Luoyang shi wen wu gong zuo dui. 1999. Luoyang Beiyao Xi Zhou mu 洛阳北窑西周墓 (Western Zhou Period Tomb in Luoyang Beiyao. Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.
Marsadolov, L. S. 1998: Марсадолов, Л. С.. 1998. “Osnovnuie tendentsii v izmenenii form udil, psaliev i pryazhek konya na Altae v VIII-V vekakh do n.e. Основные тенденции в изменении форм удил, псалиев и пряжек коня на Алтае в VIII-V веках до н.э. (Basic tendency of change of form of horse bits, cheek-pieces and horse buckles in Altai in 8–5 cc. B. C.)” В кн.: Snaryazhenie verkhovogo konya na Altae v rannem zheleznom veke i srednevekov’e. Снаряжение верхового коня на Алтае в раннем железном веке и средневековье (Equipment of horse riding in Altai in early Iron and Middle Ages).Barnaul: Izdatel’stvo Altaiskovo gosudarstvennovo universiteta, pp.5–24.
Melyukova, A. I. 1979: Мелюкова А. И.. 1979. Skifiya i Frakiiskii mir. Скифия и Фракийский мир (Scythia and Thracian world). Moskow: Nauka.
Neimenggu 2009: Neimenggu zi zhi qu wen wu kao gu yan jiu suo 内蒙古自治区文物考古研究所, Ningcheng xian Liao zhong jing bo wu guan 宁城県辽中京博物馆 (eds.). 2009. Xiaoheishigou – Xiajiadian shang ceng wen hua yi zhi fa jue bao gao 小黒石沟―夏家店上层文化遗址発掘报告 (Xiaoheishigou ―excavation report of the sites of the Upper Xiajiadian Culture). Beijing: Ke xue chu ban she.
Potratz, Johannes A.H. 1966. Die Pferdetrensen des alten Orient. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum.
Savinov, D. G. 1996: Савинов, Д. Г. 1996. Drevnie poseleniya Khakasii. Torgazhak. Древние поселения Хакасии. Торгажак (Ancient settlement in Khakasiya. Torgazhak). St. Petersburg: Tsentr «Peterburgskoe Vostokovedenie».
Shaanxi 2010: Shaanxi sheng kao gu yan jiu yuan 陕西省考古研究院, Weinan shi wen wu bao hu kao gu yan jiu suo 渭南市文物保护考古研究所, and Hancheng shi jing qu guan li wei yuan hui 韩城市景区管理委员会 (eds.). 2010. Liangdaicun Rui guo mu di ―2007 nian du fa jue bao gao 梁帯村芮国墓地-二〇〇七年度発掘报告 (Cemetery of the Rui state at Liangdai village – excavation report for 2007). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.
Shanxi 1993: Shanxi sheng kao gu yan jiu suo 山西省考古研究所. 1993. Houma zhu tong yi zhi 侯马鋳铜遗址 (Houma bronze foundry site). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.
Shanxi 2018: Shanxi sheng kao gu yan jiu suo 山西省考古研究所 2018. “Shanxi Yicheng Dahekou Xi Zhou mu di 2002 hao mu fa jue 山西翼城大河口西周墓地2002号墓发掘 (The excavation of tomb M2002 at the Dahekou cemetery of the Western Zhou in Yicheng, Shanxi).” Kao gu 2018.2: 223–262, pls.1–27.
Shul’ga, P. I. 2008: Шульга, П.И. 2008. Snaryazhenie verkhovoi loshadi i voinskie poyasa na Altae. Chast’ I. Снаряжение верховой лошади и воинские пояса на Алтае. Часть I(Equipment of horse riding and belts for battle in Altai), Barnaul: Azbuka.
Sun, Ji 孙机. 2008. Han dai wu zhi wen hua zi liao tu shu 汉代物质文化资料图说 (Illustrated explanations of the material culture of the Han Dynasty). Shanghai: Shanghai gu ji chu ban she.
Terenozhkin, A. I 1971: Тереножкин, А. И. 1971. “Data Migechaurskikh udil. Дата Мингечаурских удил (Date of horse bit from Mingechaur)”. Sovetskaya arkheologiya Советская археология 1971.4: 71–84.
Terenozhkin, A. I. 1976: Тереножкин, А. И. 1976. Kimmeriitsy. Киммерийцы (Cimmerians). Kiev: Naukova Dumka.
Vishnevskaya, O. A. 1973: Вишневская, О.А. 1973. Kul’tura sakskikh plemen Nizov’ev Syrdar’i Культура сакских племен Низовьев Сырдарьи (Culture of Saka peoples in lower stream area of Syrdar’ya). Moskow: Nauka.
Volkov, V. V. 1967: Волков, В. В. 1967. Bronzovuii i rannii zheleznuii vek Severnoi Mongolii. Бронзовый и ранний железный век Северной Монголии (Bronze and early Iron Age of Northern Mongolia). Ulan-Bator.
Wang, Peng 王鹏, 2019. “Zhouyuan yi zhi qing tong lun ya ma che yu dong xi wen hua jiao liu 周原遗址青铜轮牙马车与东西文化交流 (The chariots with bronze felloes unearthed at the Zhouyuan site and the cultural communication between the East and West).” Kao gu 2019.2: 74–88.
Wu, Xiaoyun 呉晓筠. 2002. “Shang zhi Chun qiu shi qi Zhong yuan di qu qing tong che ma qi xing shi yan jiu 商至春秋时期中原地区青铜车马器形式研究 (Study in types of bronze chariots and horse fittings of the Central Plain in the Shang through Spring and Autumn periods).” Beijing da xue Zhongguo kao gu xue yan jiu zhong xin 北京大学中国考古学研究中心 and Beijing da xue gu dai wen ming yan jiu zhong xin 北京大学古代文明研究中心 (eds.), Gu dai wen ming 古代文明 1: 180–277.
Yang, Jianhua 杨建华 and Kathryn Linduff. 2008. “Shi lun ‘shao xing qi’ de yong du―jian lun Jin Shaan gao yuan Shang Zhou shi qi wu zhuang hua yu yi dong hua 试论“勺形器”的用途―兼论晋陕高原商周时期青铜器的武装化与移动化 (On the usage of so-called spoon-shaped object―also arguing armament and migration of peoples of the Bronze Age Shang-Zhou period in the Jin-Shaan plateau).” In: Yang, Jianhua and Jiang,Gang (eds.)杨建华, 蒋刚 主编 Gong yuan qian er qian ji de Jin-Shaan gao yuan yu Yanshan nan bei 公元前2千纪的晋陕高原与燕山南北 (Jin-Shaan plateau and north and south of the Yanshan Mountains in the second millennium B. C.), pp. 85–92. Ke xue chu ban she.
Yukishima, Kōichi 2006: 雪嶋宏一. 2006. “Zen nisen nenki zenhan chūō Yūrasia no enban-gata hyou ni tsuite 前2千年紀前半中央ユーラシアの円盤型鑣について (On the disk-shaped cheek-pieces of the first half of the second millennium B.C. in Central Eurasia).” Nishi Ajia kōkogaku 西アジア考古学 7: 21–34.
Yukishima, Kōichi. 2014. “Kokkai hokugan sōgen chitai ni okeru seidō-sei hami no shigen ni tsuite 黒海北岸草原地帯における青銅製銜の始原について (On the origin of bronze horse bits in the Steppes of Northern Black Sea region).” In: Takahama Shū sensei taishoku kinen ronbunshū henshū iinkai 髙濱秀先生退職記念論文集編集委員会 (eds.), Yūrasia no kōkogaku ユーラシアの考古学 (Eurasian archaeology), pp. 249–262. Tokyo: Roku-ichi shobo.
Zhu, Gui 朱贵. 1960. “Liaoning Chaoyang Shiertai Yingzi qing tong duan jian mu 辽宁朝阳十二台営子青铜短剣墓 (Excavation of a tomb with bronze dagger in Shiertai Yingzi, Chaoyang, Liaoning Province).” Kao gu xue bao 考古学报 1960.1: 63–71, pls.1–6.
国墓地 (Cemetery of Yu State in Baoji). Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she.Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Takahama 髙濱 秀, S. Two technical traditions of casting horse bits in China and their relationships with the steppe area. asian archaeol 3, 47–57 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41826-019-00027-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41826-019-00027-w