Abstract
Children and adolescents are confronted with a variety of stressful experiences that may impact their developmental and learning processes. Yet, little is known about the way stressors actually are measured in research. To bridge this gap, this study conducted a scoping review of measures indexing child and adolescent stressors (N = 56). The results shed light on key fundamental dimensions that undergird the definition of stressors (space and time, quantification of stressfulness) and on the qualities of existing measures (content validity, composite reliability, convergent validity, and criterion validity), but also on their limitations for conducting quantitative research on youth stress processes (e.g., overreliance on long checklists or interviews, lack of demonstrated measurement invariance). Implications are drawn for the development of more integrative and efficient measures of stressors.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
For certain scales, the scoring method has not been reported (Agurto & Muñoz, 2015; Alban Metcalfe et al., 1982; Burnett & Fanshawe, 1997; Chandler, 1981; Dobson, 1980; Harper & Marshall, 1991; Kohn & Frazer, 1986; Kohn & Milrose, 1993; Monck & Dobbs, 1985; Omizo et al., 1988; Siddique & D’Arcy, 1984). Based on the fact that single scores were used in these studies, one may assume that the authors computed sum scores.
References
Adrian, C., & Hammen, C. (1993). Stress exposure and stress generation in children of depressed mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(2), 354–359. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.61.2.354
Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifying the types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38(4), 319–361. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427801038004001
Agurto, Y. J. E., & Muñoz, M. V. Á. (2015). Validación de una escala de estrés cotidiano en escolares chilenos. Revista De Psicología, 33(2), 364–385.
Alban Metcalfe, R. J., Dobson, C. B., Cook, A., & Michaud, A. (1982). The construction, reliability and validity of a stress inventory for children. Educational Psychology, 2(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144341820020106
Aldwin, C. M. (2007). Stress, coping, and development: An integrative perspective (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology Theory & Practice, 8(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616
Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54(5), 317–326.
Berden, G. F. M. G., Althaus, M., & Verhulst, F. C. (1990). Major life events and changes in the behavioural functioning of children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31(6), 949–959. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1990.tb00836.x
Bobo, J. K., Gilchrist, L. D., Elmer, J. F., Snow, W. H., & Schinke, S. P. (1986). Hassles, role strain, and peer relations in young adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 6(4), 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431686064005
Brand, A. H., & Johnson, J. H. (1982). Note on reliability of the life events checklist. Psychological Reports, 50(3), 1274. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1982.50.3c.1274
Branson, V., Dry, M. J., Palmer, E., & Turnbull, D. (2019). The adolescent distress-eustress scale: Development and validation. SAGE Open, 9(3), 2158244019865802. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019865802
Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford Publications.
Burnett, P. C., & Fanshawe, J. P. (1997). Measuring school-related stressors in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(4), 415–428. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024529321194
Byrne, D. G., Davenport, S. C., & Mazanov, J. (2007). Profiles of adolescent stress: The development of the adolescent stress questionnaire (ASQ). Journal of Adolescence, 30(3), 393–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.04.004
Chandler, L. A. (1981). The source of stress inventory. Psychology in the Schools, 18(2), 164–168.
Cheng, C. (1997). Assessment of major life events for Hong Kong adolescents: The Chinese adolescent life event scale. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25(1), 17–33.
Cheng, S.-T., & Li, K.-K. (2010). Combining major life events and recurrent hassles in the assessment of stress in Chinese adolescents: Preliminary evidence. Psychological Assessment, 22(3), 532–538. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019579
Coddington, R. D. (1972). The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children: II. A study of a normal population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 16(3), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(72)90045-1
Cohen, L. H., Burt, C. E., & Bjorck, J. P. (1987). Life stress and adjustment: Effects of life events experienced by young adolescents and their parents. Developmental Psychology, 23(4), 583–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.23.4.583
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
Compas, B. E. (1987). Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 7(3), 275–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(87)90037-7
Compas, B. E., Davis, G. E., Forsythe, C. J., & Wagner, B. M. (1987). Assessment of major and daily stressful events during adolescence: The adolescent perceived events scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(4), 534. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.55.4.534
Crossfield, A. G., Alloy, L. B., Gibb, B. E., & Abramson, L. Y. (2002). The development of depressogenic cognitive styles: The role of negative childhood life events and parental inferential feedback. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 16(4), 487–502. https://doi.org/10.1891/jcop.16.4.487.52530
Daniels, D., & Moos, R. H. (1990). Assessing life stressors and social resources among adolescents: Applications to depressed youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 5(3), 268–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489053002
de Anda, D., Baroni, S., Boskin, L., Buchwald, L., Morgan, J., Ow, J., Gold, J. S., & Weiss, R. (2000). Stress, stressors and coping among high school students. Children and Youth Services Review, 22(6), 441–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-7409(00)00096-7
Dobson, C. B. (1980). Sources of sixth form stress. Journal of Adolescence, 3(1), 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-1971(80)80013-3
Dupéré, V., Dion, E., Harkness, K., McCabe, J., Thouin, É., & Parent, S. (2017). Adaptation and validation of the life events and difficulties schedule for use with high school dropouts. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 27(3), 683–689. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12296
Dupéré, V., Dion, E., Leventhal, T., Archambault, I., Crosnoe, R., & Janosz, M. (2018). High school dropout in proximal context: The triggering role of stressful life events. Child Development, 89(2), e107–e122. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12792
Dupéré, V., Leventhal, T., Dion, E., Crosnoe, R., Archambault, I., & Janosz, M. (2015). Stressors and turning points in high school and dropout: A stress process, life course framework. Review of Educational Research, 85(4), 591–629. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654314559845
Francis-Raniere, E. L., Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (2006). Depressive personality styles and bipolar spectrum disorders: Prospective tests of the event congruency hypothesis. Bipolar Disorders, 8(4), 382–399. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-5618.2006.00337.x
Galesic, M., & Bosnjak, M. (2009). Effects of questionnaire length on participation and indicators of response quality in a web survey. Public Opinion Quarterly, 73(2), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfp031
Gibson, A. M., & Bowling, N. A. (2020). The effects of questionnaire length and behavioral consequences on careless responding. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 36(2), 410–420. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000526
Goodyer, I., Kolvin, I., & Gatzanis, S. (1985). Recent undesirable life events and psychiatric disorder in childhood and adolescence. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 147(5), 517–523. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.147.5.517
Graberc, J. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Warren, M. P. (1995). The antecedents of menarcheal age: Heredity, family environment, and stressful life events. Child Development, 66(2), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00875.x
Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Gipson, P. Y. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Measurement issues and prospective effects. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(2), 412–425. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_23
Ham, M., & Larson, R. (1990). The cognitive moderation of daily stress in early adolescence. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(4), 567–585. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00938060
Harkness, K. L., & Monroe, S. M. (2016). The assessment and measurement of adult life stress: Basic premises, operational principles, and design requirements. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(5), 727–745. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000178
Harper, J. F., & Marshall, E. (1991). Adolescents problems and their relationship to self-esteem. Adolescence, 26(104), 799–808.
Hastings, T. L., & Kelley, M. L. (1997). Development and validation of the screen for adolescent violence exposure (SAVE). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25(6), 511–520. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022641916705
Heubeck, B., & O’Sullivan, C. (1998). An exploration into the nature, frequency and impact of school hassles in the middle school years. Australian Psychologist, 33(2), 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050069808257394
Hinkle, L. E. (1974). The concept of stress in the biological and social sciences. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 5(4), 335–357. https://doi.org/10.2190/91DK-NKAD-1XP0-Y4RG
Holahan, C. J., & Moos, R. H. (1994). Life stressors and mental health. In W. R. Avison & I. H. Gotlib (Eds.), Stress and mental health (pp. 213–238). Springer.
Ingul, J. M., Klöckner, C. A., Silverman, W. K., & Nordahl, H. M. (2012). Adolescent school absenteeism: Modelling social and individual risk factors. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 17(2), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-3588.2011.00615.x
Kanner, A. D., Feldman, S. S., Weinberger, D. A., & Ford, M. E. (1987). Uplifts, hassles, and adaptational outcomes in early adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 7(4), 371–394. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431687074002
Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K.-M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The trier social stress test–a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28(1–2), 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1159/000119004
Kohn, J. P., & Frazer, G. H. (1986). An academic stress scale: Identification and rated importance of academic stressors. Psychological Reports, 59(2), 415–426. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1986.59.2.415
Kohn, P. M., & Milrose, J. A. (1993). The inventory of high-school students recent life experiences: A decontaminated measure of adolescents hassles. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 22(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537903
Krosnick, J. A. (1991). Response strategies for coping with the cognitive demands of attitude measures in surveys. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 5(3), 213–236. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350050305
Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Stress and emotion: A new synthesis. Springer Publishing Company.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.
LeCompte, M. D., & Dworkin, A. G. (1991). Giving up on school: Student dropouts and teacher burnouts. ERIC. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED340809
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Gau, J. M. (2003). Comparability of self-report checklist and interview data in the assessment of stressful life events in young adults. Psychological Reports, 93(2), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2003.93.2.459
Lima, J. F., Alarcón, R., Escobar, M., Fernández-Baena, F. J., Muñoz, Á. M., & Blanca, M. J. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the adolescent stress questionnaire (ASQ-S). Psychological Assessment, 29(10), e1–e12. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000516
Masten, A. S., Neemann, J., & Andenas, S. (1994). Life events and adjustment in adolescents: The significance of event independence, desirability, and chronicity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4(1), 71–97. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0401_5
Matheny, K. B., Aycock, D. W., & McCarthy, C. J. (1993). Stress in school-aged children and youth. Educational Psychology Review, 5(2), 109–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01323156
Mitman, A. L., & Packer, M. J. (1982). Concerns of seventh-graders about their transition to junior high school. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 2(4), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/027243168200200403
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
Monck, E., & Dobbs, R. (1985). Measuring life events in an adolescent population: Methodological issues and related findings. Psychological Medicine, 15(4), 841–850. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291700005079
Monroe, S. M. (2008). Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141207
Newcomb, M. D., Huba, G. J., & Bentler, P. M. (1981). A multidimensional assessment of stressful life events among adolescents: Derivation and correlates. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4), 400–415. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136681
Omizo, M. M., Omizo, S. A., & Suzuki, L. A. (1988). Children and stress: An exploratory study of stressors and symptoms. The School Counselor, 35(4), 267–274. https://doi.org/10.2307/23901307
Patterson, J. M., & Mccubbin, H. I. (1983). The impact of family life events and changes on the health of a chronically ill child. Family Relations, 23(2), 255–264. https://doi.org/10.2307/584685
Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30(3), 241–256. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136956
Pearlin, L. I., & Bierman, A. (2013). Current issues and future directions in research into the stress process. In C. S. Aneshensel, J. C. Phelan, & A. Bierman (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 325–340). Springer.
Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2011). Introduction to psychometric theory. Routledge.
Safford, S. M., Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., & Crossfield, A. G. (2007). Negative cognitive style as a predictor of negative life events in depression-prone individuals: A test of the stress generation hypothesis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 99(1–3), 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2006.09.003
Salmela-Aro, K., & Upadyaya, K. (2014). School burnout and engagement in the context of demands-resources model. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(1), 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12018
Sandberg, S., Rutter, M., Giles, S., Owen, A., Champion, L., Nicholls, J., Prior, V., McGuinness, D., & Drinnan, D. (1993). Assessment of psychosocial experiences in childhood: Methodological issues and some illustrative findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34(6), 879–897. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb01096.x
Sarason, I. G., Johnson, J. H., & Siegel, J. M. (1978). Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the life experiences survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46(5), 932–946. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.46.5.932
Siddique, C. M., & D’Arcy, C. (1984). Adolescence, stress, and psychological well-being. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13(6), 459–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02088593
Skinner, E. A., & Saxton, E. A. (2019). The development of academic coping in children and youth: A comprehensive review and critique. Developmental Review. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2019.100870
Sun, J., Dunne, M. P., Hou, X.-Y., & Xu, A. (2011). Educational stress scale for adolescents: Development, validity, and reliability with Chinese students. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 29(6), 534–546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282910394976
Swearingen, E. M., & Cohen, L. H. (1985). Measurement of adolescents life events: The junior high life experiences survey. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13(1), 69–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00923260
Torres, M. V. T., Mena, M. J. B., Baena, F. J. F., Espejo, M. E., Montero, E. F. M., & Sánchez, Á. M. M. (2009). Evaluación del estrés infantil: Inventario Infantil de Estresores Cotidianos (IIEC). Psicothema, 21(4), 598–603.
Turner, R. J., & Wheaton, B. (1997). Checklist measurement of stressful life events. In S. Cohen, R. C. Kessler, & L. U. Gordon (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 29–58). Oxford University Press.
Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810031002
Vaughn, A. A., Roesch, S. C., & Aldridge, A. A. (2009). Stress-related growth in racial/ethnic minority adolescents: Measurement structure and validity. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(1), 131–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408318775
Wagner, C., Abela, J. R., & Brozina, K. (2006). A comparison of stress measures in children and adolescents: A self-report checklist versus an objectively rated interview. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 28(4), 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-005-9010-9
Wethington, E., Brown, G. W., & Kessler, R. C. (1997). Interview measurement of stressful life events. In S. Cohen, R. C. Kessler, & L. U. Gordon (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 59–79). Oxford University Press.
Wheaton, B. (1994). Sampling the stress universe. In W. R. Avison & I. H. Gotlib (Eds.), Stress and mental health (pp. 77–114). Springer.
Wheaton, B., Young, M., Montazer, S., & Stuart-Lahman, K. (2013). Social stress in the twenty-first century. In C. S. Aneshensel, J. C. Phelan, & A. Bierman (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 299–323). Springer.
Williamson, D. E., Birmaher, B., Ryan, N. D., Shiffrin, T. P., Lusky, J. A., Protopapa, J., Dahl, R. E., & Brent, D. A. (2003). The stressful life events schedule for children and adolescents: Development and validation. Psychiatry Research, 119(3), 225–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(03)00134-3
Wu, K. K., & Lam, D. J. (1993). The relationship between daily stress and health: Replicating and extending previous findings. Psychology & Health, 8(5), 329–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870449308401926
Yeaworth, R. C., McNamee, M. J., & Pozehl, B. (1992). The adolescent life change event scale: Its development and use. Adolescence, 27(108), 783–802.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Roger J. R. Levesque for his great help and pedagogical advice while conducting the editorial work for this publication.
Funding
This research was supported partly by a doctoral grant to the first author (Appel à projets Grenoble Innovation Recherche “DESCOL”).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
FNR participated in designing the review (i.e., conceptualization, methodology, investigation), in collecting the data, and in writing the original draft of the manuscript; IA participated in designing, verifying and validating the review, and in reviewing and editing the draft; PB participated in designing the review, and in reviewing and editing the draft; CN participated in reviewing and editing the draft. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors report no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Núñez-Regueiro, F., Archambault, I., Bressoux, P. et al. Measuring Stressors Among Children and Adolescents: A Scoping Review 1956–2020. Adolescent Res Rev 7, 141–160 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-021-00168-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-021-00168-z