Language-related episodes and feedback in synchronous voiced-based and asynchronous text-based computer-mediated communications

Abstract

This study compared the potentials of synchronous voice-based and asynchronous text-based computer-mediated communication (CMC) modalities in creating a medium for learner feedback and engagement in dialogic interactions as they face communication breakdowns. These potentials were evaluated in terms of the number of interactional language related episodes (LREs) and feedback types in learners' attempts for solving communication breakdown. This study also investigated if LREs and feedback affected the overall writing performance and its subcomponents. To this end, the collaborative writing performances of 40 Iranian English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners were assessed. Data collection from the participants included (1) an analysis of stored conversations in synchronous voice-based CMC as well as transcription analyses of asynchronous text-based CMC to detect signals of communication repairs and feedback types, and (2) writing performances on pre- and post-tests of writing. The results of chi-square analyses indicated significant differences in the frequency and types of LREs and feedback in research groups. Moreover, the results of the one-way ANCOVA indicated better writing performance on the side of the students in the asynchronous text-based CMC group. Findings imply that teaching practitioners make principled decisions on CMC modalities as an important affordance of twenty-first century literacy and pedagogy.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Topic familiarity questionnaire

These topics of topic familiarity questionnaire have been taken from authentic examination papers from University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations.

	IELTS general writing task 2 topics	Very familiar	Familiar	Not familiar
1	Being a celebrity—such as famous film star or sports personality—brings problems as well as benefits. Do you think that being a celebrity brings more benefits or more problems?
2	Unemployment is a phenomenon affecting the young people's life across the globe. What challenges do you think it may bring to society
3	In many countries, the amount of crime is increasing What do you think are the main causes of crime? How can we deal with those causes?
4	Some people believe that poverty is affecting all aspects of human right. Poverty is something more than the lack of basic needs. They consider cultural poverty as important as financial one. How do you define poverty?
5	Some people feel that entertainers (e.g. film stars, pop musicians or sports stars) are paid too much money Do you agree or disagree? Which other types of job should be highly paid?
6	Some people prefer to live in a house, while others feel that there are more advantages to living in an apartment. Are there more advantages than disadvantages of living in a house compared with living in an apartment?
7	Today more people are travelling than ever before. Why is this the case? What are the benefits of travelling for the traveller?
8	Some people think that sending criminals to prison is not the best method of dealing with crime. They believe, education and job training are far better ways to deal with crime and criminals. To what extent do you agree? Which types of education and job trainings should be provided?
9	Some people think the reason for divorce is marriage. Some other think that marriage itself is a must phase of a natural life and they believe divorce is not the first solution. What do you think about causes and effects of divorce and how it should be managed by couples
10	Some people believe that everyone should go to university, while others believe that it is not the best for everyone to go to university. Discuss both view and give your opinion

Appendix 2: Sample writing task

A multibillionaire is dying because of old age. He does not have any proceedings to bestow his wealth. He decided to divide his wealth into two halves. One half will be bestowed to anyone who could provide a plan for spending the other half on his countries social disorders. If you are willing to have half of his wealth, how do you decide to spend the other half? Negotiate with your partner and write collaboratively an essay of 250 words on the plan you have for solving social disorder by the other half of the man's wealth.

Appendix 3: IELTS's rating rubric for writing performance

Band	Task response	Coherence and cohesion	Lexical resource	Grammatical range and accuracy
9	□ Fully addresses all parts of the task □ Presents a fully developed position in answer to the question with relevant, fully extended and well supported ideas	□ Uses cohesion in such a way that it attracts no attention □ Skilfully manages paragraphing	□ Uses a wide range of vocabulary with Very natural and sophisticated control of lexical features; rare minor errors occur only as ‘slips’	□ Uses a wide range of structures with full flexibility and accuracy; rare minor errors occur only as ‘slips’
8	□ Sufficiently addresses all parts of the task □ Presents a well-developed response to the question with relevant, extended and supported ideas	□ Sequences information and ideas logically □ Manages all aspects of Cohesion well □ Uses paragraphing sufficiently and appropriately	□ Uses a wide range of vocabulary fluently and flexibly to convey precise □ Meanings □ Skilfully uses uncommon lexical items but there may be occasional inaccuracies in word choice and collocation □ Produces rare errors in spelling and/or word formation	□ Uses a wide range of structures □ The majority of Sentences are error-free □ Makes only very occasional Errors or inappropriacies
7	□ Addresses all parts of the task □ Presents a clear position throughout the response □ Presents, extends and supports main ideas, but there may be a tendency to overgeneralise and/or supporting ideas may lack focus	□ Logically organises information and ideas; there is clear progression throughout □ Uses a range of cohesive devices appropriately although there may be some under-/over-use □ Presents a clear central topic within each paragraph	□ Uses a sufficient range of vocabulary to allow some flexibility and precision □ Uses less common lexical items with some awareness of style and collocation □ May produce occasional errors in word choice, spelling and/or word formation	□ Uses a variety of complex structures □ Produces frequent error Free sentences □ Has good control of grammar and punctuation but may make a few errors
6	Addresses all parts of the task although some parts may be more fully covered than others □ Presents a relevant position although the conclusions may become unclear or repetitive Presents relevant main ideas but some may be inadequately developed/unclear	□ Arranges information and ideas coherently and there is a clear overall progression Uses cohesive devices effectively, but cohesion within and/or between sentences may be faulty or mechanical □May not always □ Use referencing clearly or appropriately □ Uses paragraphing, but not always logically	□ Uses an adequate range of vocabulary for the task □ Attempts to use less common vocabulary but with some inaccuracy □ Makes some errors in spelling and/or word formation, but they do not impede communication	□ Uses a mix of simple and complex sentence forms □ Makes some errors in grammar and punctuation but they rarely reduce communication
5	□ Addresses the task only partially; the format may be inappropriate in places □ Expresses a position but the development is not always clear and there may be no conclusions drawn □ Presents some main ideas but these are limited and not sufficiently developed; there may be irrelevant detail	□ Presents information with some organisation but there may be a lack of overall progression □ Makes inadequate, inaccurate or over-use of cohesive devices may be repetitive because of lack of referencing and substitution □ May not write in paragraphs, or paragraphing may be inadequate	□ Uses a limited range of vocabulary, but this is minimally adequate for the task □ May make noticeable errors in spelling and/or word formation that may cause some difficulty for the reader	□ Uses only a limited range of structures □ Attempts complex sentences but these tend to be less accurate than simple sentences □ May make frequent grammatical errors and punctuation may be faulty; errors can cause some difficulty for the reader
4	□ Responds to the task only in a minimal way or the answer is tangential; the format may be inappropriate □ Presents a position but this is unclear □ Presents some main ideas but these are difficult to identify and may be repetitive, irrelevant or not well supported	□ Presents information and ideas but these are not arranged coherently and there is no clear progression in the response □ Uses some basic cohesive devices but these may be inaccurate or repetitive □ May not write in paragraphs or their use may be confusing	□ Uses only basic vocabulary which may be used repetitively or which may be inappropriate for the task □ Has limited control of word formation and/or spelling; errors may cause strain for the reader	□ Uses only a very limited range of structures with only rare use of subordinate clauses □ Some structures are accurate but errors predominate, and punctuation is often faulty
3	□ Does not adequately address any part of the task □ Does not express a clear position □ Presents few ideas, which are largely undeveloped or irrelevant	□ Does not organise ideas logically □ May use a very limited range of cohesive devices, and those used may not indicate a logical relationship between ideas	□ Uses only a very limited range of words and expressions with very limited control of word formation and/or spelling □ Errors may severely distort the message	□ Attempts sentence forms but errors in grammar and punctuation predominate and distort the meaning
2	□ Barely responds to the task □ Does not express a position □ May attempt to present one or two ideas but	□ Has very little control of organisational features	□ Uses an extremely limited range of vocabulary; essentially no control of word formation and/or spelling	□ Cannot use sentence forms except in memorised phrases
1	□ Answer is completely unrelated to the task	□ Fails to communicate any message	□ Can only use a few isolated words	□ Cannot use sentence forms at all
0	□ Does not attend □ Does not attempt the task in any way □ Writes a totally memorised response

Appendix 4: Assumptions required by one-way ANCOVA

One-way ANCOVA assumes normality of the data, reliability of the instruments, homogeneity of variances of groups, linear relationship between the posttest (dependent variable) and pretest (covariate) and homogeneity of regression slope. The normality of the data was tested by computing the ratios of skewness and kurtosis over their respective standard errors. Since the absolute values of these ratios were lower than 1.96, it can be claimed that the assumption of normality was retained (Table 6).

Table 6 Descriptive statistics; testing normality assumption

The assumption of homogeneity of variances was probed through the Levene’s tests. Based on the results [F (1, 38) = 1.497, p = 0.229], it can be concluded that the two groups presented homogeneous variances. One-way ANCOVA has two specific assumptions: linear relationship between the dependent variables and covariate and homogeneity of regression slopes. The statistical assumption as no linear relationship between the covariate (pretest of writing) and dependent variable (posttest of writing) was rejected [F (1, 26) = 62.59, p = 0.000]. In other words; there was a linear relationship between the two variables. The interaction between the independent variables (groups) and the pretest of writing (covariate) was analyzed using Test of Between-Subjects Effects to test if the assumption of homogeneity of regression slop is met. The results indicated that there was a non-significant interaction between the independent variable and covariate [F (1, 36) = 2.08, p = 0.157, Partial η² = 0.055 representing a weak effect size]. Thus it can be concluded that the assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes was retained.

Appendix 5: Assumption required for MANOVA

Before discussing the results it should be mentioned that the assumption of homogeneity of covariance matrices was met (Box’ M = 11.42, p = 0.430) (Table 7).

Table 7 Box's test of equality of covariance matrices

Based on the results displayed in Table 8, it can be claimed that the assumption of homogeneity of variances was met on task achievement [F (1, 38) = 1.65, p = 0.206], coherence [F (1, 38) = 0.996, p = 0.325], lexical range [F (1, 38) = 0.286, p = 0.596] and grammatical accuracy [F (1, 38) = 1.05, p = 0.311].

Table 8 Levene's test of equality of error variances