Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Comparison of the Effects of Outdoor Physical Activity and Indoor Classroom-Based Activities on Measures of Executive Function in Preschoolers

  • Original research
  • Published:
International Journal of Early Childhood Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this study was to explore the effects of preschooler PA in two separate environments (indoor/outdoor) on measures of executive functions in preschoolers. Eighteen preschool-age (3–5 years) children were recruited for the study. Participants of the study wore an accelerometer for 30 min during indoor classroom-based activities and 30 min during outdoor PA. Pre and post inhibitory control and simple reaction time assessments were completed for each condition, for a total of four assessments for each participant. One assessment of the inhibitory control task (Arrows) resulted in a significant interaction of time x condition, F(1,16) = 3.42, p = .08, partial η2 = 0.18. These results indicate that performance improved in response to outdoor PA, but declined in response to indoor classroom activities. This research suggests that outdoor PA may result in cognitive benefits that are not observed following indoor classroom activities on one assessment of inhibitory control. Providing more scheduled time for PA for preschoolers is recommended for these reasons.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Becker, D. R., McClelland, M. M., Loprinzi, P., & Trost, S. G. (2014). Physical activity, self-regulation, and early academic achievement in preschool children. Early Education & Development, 25(1), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2013.780505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., Denham, S. A., Howarth, G. Z., Jones, S. M., Whittaker, J. V., Williford, A. P., Willoughby, M. T., Yudron, M., & Darling-Churchill, K. (2016). Commentary on the review of measures of early childhood social and emotional development: Conceptualization, critique, and recommendations. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 45, 19–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carson, V., Hunter, S., Kuzik, N., Wiebe, S. A., Spence, J. C., Friedman, A., Tremblay, M. S., Slater, L., & Hinkley, T. (2016). Systematic review of physical activity and cognitive development in early childhood. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19(7), 573–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2015.07.011

  • Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., & Thomas, K. M. (2000). Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development. Biological Psychology, 54, 241–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, A.-G., Yan, J., Yin, H.-G., Pan, C.-Y., & Chang, Y.-K. (2014). Effects of acute bouts of aerobic exercise on multiple aspects of executive function in preadolescent children. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15, 627–636.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, M. M. (1996). Outdoors: An important context for young children’s development. Early Child Development and Care, 115(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443961150104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denham, S. A., & Brown, C. (2010). “Plays nice with others”: Social–emotional learning and academic success. Early Education and Development, 21(5), 652–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2010.497450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donnelly, J. E., Hillman, C. H., Castelli, D., Etnier, J. L., Lee, S., Tomporowski, P., Lambourne, K., & Szabo-Reed, A. N. (2016). Physical activity, fitness, cognitive function, and academic achievement in children: A systematic review. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48(6), 1197–1222. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000901

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Etnier, J. L., Labban, J. D., Piepmeier, A., Davis, M. E., & Henning, D. A. (2014). Effects of an acute bout of exercise on memory in 6th grade children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 26, 250–258. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2013-0141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fjørtoft, I. (2001). The natural environment as a playground for children: The impact of outdoor play activities in pre-primary school children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29(2), 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012576913074

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frost, J. L. (1992). Play and Playscapes. Albany, NY: Delmar.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humphries, M. L., Williams, B. V., & May, T. (2018). Early childhood teachers’ perspectives on social–emotional competence and learning in urban classrooms. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 34(2), 157–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, N. A., & Hillman, C. H. (2014). The relation of childhood physical activity and aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition: A review. Pediatric Exercise Science, 26, 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2013-0125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundy, A., & Trawick-Smith, J. (2020). Effects of active outdoor play on preschool children’s on-task classroom behavior. Early Childhood Education Journal, 49(3), 463–471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-020-01086-w

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mierau, A., Hülsdünker, T., Mierau, J., Hense, A., Hense, J., & Strüder, H. K. (2014). Acute exercise induces cortical inhibition and reduces arousal in response to visual stimulation in young children. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 34, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2013.12.009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Migueles, J. H., Cadenas-Sanchez, C., Ekelund, U., Nystrom, C. D., Mora-Gonzalez, J., Lof, M., Labayen, I., Ruiz, J. R., & Ortega, F. B. (2017). Accelerometer data collection and processing criteria to assess physical activity and other outcomes: A systematic review and practical considerations. Sports Medicine, 47(9), 1821–1845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0716-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montoye, A. H. K., Nelson, M. B., Bock, J. M., Imboden, M. T., Kaminsky, L. A., Mackintosh, K. A., McNarry, M. A., & Pfeiffer, K. A. (2017). Raw and count data comparability of hip-worn Actigraph GT3X+ and link accelerometers. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(5), 1103–1112. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001534

  • Palmer, K. K., Miller, M. W., & Robinson, L. E. (2013). Acute exercise enhances preschoolers’ ability to sustain attention. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 35(4), 433–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pate, R. R., Almeida, M. J., McIver, K. L., Pfeiffer, K. A., & Dowda, M. (2006). Validation and calibration of an accelerometer in preschool children. Obesity, 14(11), 2000–2006. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2006.234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pesce, C., Crova, C., Cereatti, L., Casella, R., & Bellucci, M. (2009). Physical activity and mental performance in preadolescents: Effects of acute exercise on free-recall memory. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 2(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2009.02.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (1985). Temperament and the development of self-regulation. In L. C. Hartlage & C. F. Telzrow (Eds.), The neuropsychology of individual differences (pp. 93–123). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tandon, P. S., Klein, M., Saelens, B. E., Christakis, D. A., Marchese, A. J., & Lengua, L. (2018). Short term impact of physical activity versus sedentary behavior on preschoolers’ cognitive functions. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 15, 17–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2018.06.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tonge, K. L., Jones, R. A., & Okely, A. D. (2016). Correlates of children’s objectively measured physical activity and sedentary behavior in early childhood education and care services: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine, 89, 129–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trost, S. G., Ward, D. S., & Senso, M. (2010). Effects of child care policy and environment on physical activity. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 42(3), 520–525. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013181cea3ef

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, P., van Zandvoort, M. M., Burke, S. M., & Irwin, J. D. (2011). Physical activity at daycare: Childcare providers’ perspectives for improvements. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 9, 201–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., Wirth, R. J., & Greenberg, M. (2010). The measurement of executive function at age 3 years: Psychometric properties and criterion validity of a new battery of tasks. Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 306–317. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M., & Blair, C. (2011). Test-retest reliability of a new executive function battery for use in early childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 17(6), 564–579. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.554390

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., Kuhn, L. J., & Magnus, B. E. (2018). The benefits of adding a brief measure of simple reaction time to the assessment of executive function skills in early childhood. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 170, 30–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2018.01.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willoughby, M. T., Wylie, A. C., & Catellier, D. J. (2018b). Testing the association between physical activity and executive function skills in early childhood. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 44, 82–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.03.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zamani, Z. (2017). Young children’s preferences: What stimulates children’s cognitive play in outdoor preschools? Journal of Early Childhood Research, 15(3), 256–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X15616831

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2010). Executive function in typical and atypical development. The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 574–603). Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444325485.ch2

  • Zhang, B., Liu, Y., Zhao, M., Meng, X., Deng, Y., Zheng, X., Wang, X., Xiong, S., & Han, Y. (2020). Differential effects of acute physical activity on executive function in preschoolers with high and low habitual physical activity levels. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 18, 100326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2020.100326

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Coastal Carolina University, 100 Chanticleer Dr., Conway, SC, 29528, USA

    Marcia A. Rosiek

  2. University of North Carolina Greensboro, 1400 Spring Garden St, Greensboro, NC, 27412, USA

    Jennifer L. Etnier

  3. Research Triangle Institute, 5265 Capital Blvd, Raleigh, NC, 27616, USA

    Michael T. Willoughby

Authors
  1. Marcia A. Rosiek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jennifer L. Etnier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Michael T. Willoughby
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marcia A. Rosiek.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

We have no conflict of interest to disclose.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rosiek, M.A., Etnier, J.L. & Willoughby, M.T. A Comparison of the Effects of Outdoor Physical Activity and Indoor Classroom-Based Activities on Measures of Executive Function in Preschoolers. IJEC 54, 203–215 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-022-00318-x

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-022-00318-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation