Abstract
Socially shared metacognition is important for effective collaborative problem solving in virtual laboratory settings, A holistic account of socially shared metacognition in virtual laboratory settings is needed to advance our understanding, but previous studies have only focused on the isolated effect of each dimension on problem solving. This study thus applied learning analytics techniques to develop a comprehensive understanding of socially shared metacognition during collaborative problem solving in virtual laboratories. We manually coded 126 collaborative problem-solving scenarios in a virtual physics laboratory and then employed K-Means clustering analysis to identify patterns of socially shared metacognition. Four clusters were discovered. Statistical analysis was performed to investigate how the clusters were associated with the outcome of collaborative problem solving and also how they related to the difficulty level of problems. The findings of this study provided theoretical implications to advance the understanding of socially shared metacognition in virtual laboratory settings and also practical implications to foster effective collaborative problem solving in those settings.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen, M. (Ed.). (2017). The SAGE encyclopedia of communication research methods. SAGE publications.
Andrews-Todd, J., & Forsyth, C. M. (2020). Exploring social and cognitive dimensions of collaborative problem solving in an open online simulation-based task. Computers in Human Behavior, 104, 105759.
Artz, A. F., & Armour-Thomas, E. (1992). Development of a cognitive-metacognitive framework for protocol analysis of mathematical problem solving in small groups. Cognition and Instruction, 9(2), 137–175.
Corwin, L. A., Runyon, C. R., Ghanem, E., Sandy, M., Clark, G., Palmer, G. C., Reichler, S., Rodenbusch, S. E., & Dolan, E. L. (2018). Effects of discovery, iteration, and collaboration in laboratory courses on undergraduates’ research career intentions fully mediated by student ownership. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 17(2), ar20.
De Backer, L., Van Keer, H., & Valcke, M. (2015). Exploring evolutions in reciprocal peer tutoring groups’ socially shared metacognitive regulation and identifying its metacognitive correlates. Learning and Instruction, 38, 63–78.
De Backer, L., Van Keer, H., & Valcke, M. (2020). Variations in socially shared metacognitive regulation and their relation with university students’ performance. Metacognition and Learning, 15, 233–259.
Ding, N., & Harskamp, E. G. (2011). Collaboration and peer tutoring in chemistry laboratory education. International Journal of Science Education, 33(6), 839–863.
Du, X., Dai, M., Tang, H., Hung, J., Li, H., & Zheng, J. (2022). A multimodal analysis of college students’ collaborative problem solving in virtual experimentation activities: A perspective of cognitive load. Journal of Computing in Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-022-09311-8
Eseryel, D., Ge, X., Ifenthaler, D., & Law, V. (2011). Dynamic modeling as a cognitive regulation scaffold for developing complex problem-solving skills in an educational massively multiplayer online game environment. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 45(3), 265–286.
Eshuis, E. H., Ter Vrugte, J., Anjewierden, A., Bollen, L., Sikken, J., & De Jong, T. (2019). Improving the quality of vocational students’ collaboration and knowledge acquisition through instruction and joint reflection. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 14(1), 53–76.
Grau, V., & Whitebread, D. (2012). Self and social regulation of learning during collaborative activities in the classroom: The interplay of individual and group cognition. Learning and Instruction, 22(6), 401–412.
Hadwin, A. F., Järvelä, S., & Miller, M. (2011). Self-regulated, co-regulated, and socially shared regulation of learning. Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance, 30, 65–84.
Hadwin, A. F., Oshige, M., Gress, C. L., & Winne, P. H. (2010). Innovative ways for using gStudy to orchestrate and research social aspects of self-regulated learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 794–805.
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 235–266.
Hurme, T. R., Merenluoto, K., & Järvelä, S. (2009). Socially shared metacognition of pre-service primary teachers in a computer-supported mathematics course and their feelings of task difficulty: A case study. Educational Research and Evaluation, 15(5), 503–524.
Iiskala, T., Vauras, M., Lehtinen, E., & Salonen, P. (2011). Socially shared metacognition of dyads of pupils in collaborative mathematical problem-solving processes. Learning and Instruction, 21(3), 379–393.
Iiskala, T., Volet, S., Lehtinen, E., & Vauras, M. (2015). Socially shared metacognitive regulation in asynchronous CSCL in science: Functions, evolution and participation. Frontline Learning Research, 3(1), 78–111.
Jang, H. (2016). Identifying 21st century STEM competencies using workplace data. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 25(2), 284–301.
Järvelä, S., & Hadwin, A. F. (2013). New Frontiers: Regulating learning in CSCL. Educational Psychologist, 48(1), 25–39.
Järvelä, S., Kirschner, P. A., Panadero, E., Malmberg, J., Phielix, C., Jaspers, J., Koivuniemi, M., & Järvenoja, H. (2015). Enhancing socially shared regulation in collaborative learning groups: Designing for CSCL regulation tools. Educational Technology Research and Development, 63(1), 125–142.
Järvelä, S., Kirschner, P. A., Hadwin, A., Järvenoja, H., Malmberg, J., Miller, M., & Laru, J. (2016a). Socially shared regulation of learning in CSCL: Understanding and prompting individual-and group-level shared regulatory activities. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 11(3), 263–280.
Järvelä, S., Malmberg, J., & Koivuniemi, M. (2016b). Recognizing socially shared regulation by using the temporal sequences of online chat and logs in CSCL. Learning and Instruction, 42, 1–11.
Kim, M. C., & Hannafin, M. J. (2011). Scaffolding problem solving in technology-enhanced learning environments (TELEs): Bridging research and theory with practice. Computers & Education, 56(2), 403–417.
Kuo, F. R., Hwang, G. J., Chen, S. C., & Chen, S. Y. (2012). A cognitive apprenticeship approach to facilitating web-based collaborative problem solving. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 15(4).
Kwon, K., Song, D., Sari, A. R., & Khikmatillaeva, U. (2019). Different types of collaborative problem-solving processes in an online environment: Solution oriented versus problem oriented. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 56(8), 1277–1295.
Lajoie, S. P., Lee, L., Poitras, E., Bassiri, M., Kazemitabar, M., Cruz-Panesso, I., Hmelo-Silver, C., Wiseman, J., Chan, L. K., & Lu, J. (2015). The role of regulation in medical student learning in small groups: Regulating oneself and others’ learning and emotions. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 601–616.
Lajoie, S. P., & Lu, J. (2012). Supporting collaboration with technology: Does shared cognition lead to co-regulation in medicine? Metacognition and Learning, 7(1), 45–62.
Lazakidou, G., & Retalis, S. (2010). Using computer supported collaborative learning strategies for helping students acquire selfregulated problem-solving skills in mathematics. Computers & Education, 54(1), 3–13.
Long, P., & Siemens, G. (2011). Penetrating the fog: Analytics in learning and education. EDUCAUSE Review, 46(5), 31–40.
Malmberg, J., Järvelä, S., Järvenoja, H., & Panadero, E. (2015). Promoting socially shared regulation of learning in CSCL: Progress of socially shared regulation among high-and low-performing groups. Computers in Human Behavior, 52, 562–572.
May, D. (2020). Cross reality spaces in engineering education–Online laboratories for supporting international student collaboration in merging realities. International Journal of Online and Biomedical Engineering, 16(03), 4–26.
Mercier, J., & Frederiksen, C. (2008). The structure of the help-seeking process in collaboratively using a computer coach in problem-based learning. Computers & Education, 51(1), 17–33.
Molenaar, I., & Järvelä, S. (2014). Sequential and temporal characteristics of self and socially regulated learning. Metacognition and Learning, 9(2), 75–85.
Nelson, T. O. (1999). Cognition versus metacognition. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of cognition (pp. 625–641). The MIT Press.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2017). PISA 2015 results (volume V): Collaborative problem solving. https://doi.org/10.1787/19963777
Ottenbacher, K. (1992). Impact of random assignment on study outcome: An empirical examination. Controlled Clinical Trials, 13(1), 50–61.
Panadero, E., & Järvelä, S. (2015). Socially shared regulation of learning: A review. European Psychologist.
Perrotta, C., & Williamson, B. (2018). The social life of learning analytics: Cluster analysis and the ‘performance’ of algorithmic education. Learning, Media and Technology, 43(1), 3–16.
Phielix, C., Prins, F. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2010). Awareness of group performance in a CSCL-environment: Effects of peer feedback and reflection. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(2), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.10.011
Phielix, C., Prins, F. J., Kirschner, P. A., Erkens, G., & Jaspers, J. (2011). Group awareness of social and cognitive performance in a CSCL environment: Effects of a peer feedback and reflection tool. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(3), 1087–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.06.024
Reeves, S., & Crippen, K. (2021). Virtual laboratories in undergraduate science and engineering courses: A systematic review, 2009–2019. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 30, 16–30.
Rogat, T. K., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2011). Socially shared regulation in collaborative groups: An analysis of the interplay between quality of social regulation and group processes. Cognition and Instruction, 29(4), 375–415.
Salonen, P., Vauras, M., & Efklides, A. (2005). Social interaction-what can it tell us about metacognition and coregulation in learning? European Psychologist, 10(3), 199–208.
Sarle, W. S. (1983). Cubic clustering criterion. SAS Technical Report A-108. SAS Institution Inc., Cary, NC.
Schoor, C., & Bannert, M. (2012). Exploring regulatory processes during a computer-supported collaborative learning task using process mining. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(4), 1321–1331.
Sheorey, T. (2014). Empirical evidence of relationship between virtual lab development and students learning through field trials on vlab on mechatronics. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 4(1), 97.
Srougi, M. C., & Miller, H. B. (2018). Peer learning as a tool to strengthen math skills in introductory chemistry laboratories. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 19(1), 319–330.
Su, Y., Li, Y., Hu, H., & Rosé, C. P. (2018). Exploring college English language learners’ self and social regulation of learning during wiki-supported collaborative reading activities. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 1–26.
Tang, H. (2021a). Person-centered analysis of self-regulated learner profiles in MOOCs: A cultural perspective. Educational Technology Research and Development, 69(2), 1247–1269. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-021-09939-w
Tang, H. (2021b). Teaching teachers to use technology through Massive Open Online Course: Perspectives of interaction equivalency. Computers & Education, 174(2021), 104307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104307
Tang, H., & Bao, Y. (2021). A person-centered approach to understanding K-12 teachers’ barriers in implementing open educational resources. Distance Education, 42(4), 582–598. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2021.1986371
Tang, H., Dai, M., Yang, S., Du, X., Hung, J., & Li, H. (2022). Using multimodal analytics to systemically investigate online collaborative problem-solving. Distance Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2022.2064824
Tang, H., & Xing, W. (2022). Massive Open Online Courses for professional certificate programs? A perspective of professional learners’ longitudinal participation patterns. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 38(1), 136–147. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.5768
Tang, H., Xing, W., & Pei, B. (2018). Exploring the temporal dimension of forum participation in MOOCs. Distance Education, 39(3), 353–372.
Tang, H., Xing, W., & Pei, B. (2019). Time really matters: Understanding the temporal dimension of online learning using educational data mining. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(5), 1326–1347.
Tawfik, A. A., Sánchez, L., & Saparova, D. (2014). The effects of case libraries in supporting collaborative problem-solving in an online learning environment. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 19(3), 337–358.
Tho, S. W., & Yeung, Y. Y. (2018). An implementation of remote laboratory for secondary science education. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 34(5), 629–640.
Vauras, M., Iiskala, T., Kajamies, A., Kinnunen, R., & Lehtinen, E. (2003). Shared-regulation and motivation of collaborating peers: A case analysis. Psychologia, 46(1), 19–37.
Volet, S., Vauras, M., & Salonen, P. (2009). Self-and social regulation in learning contexts: An integrative perspective. Educational Psychologist, 44(4), 215–226.
Volet, S., Bueno, L. J., & Bigand, E. (2013). Music, emotion, and time perception: The influence of subjective emotional valence and arousal? Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 417.
Whitebread, D., Coltman, P., Pasternak, D. P., Sangster, C., Grau, V., Bingham, S., Almeqdad, Q., & Demetriou, D. (2009). The development of two observational tools for assessing metacognition and self-regulated learning in young children. Metacognition and Learning, 4(1), 63–85.
Xing, W., Tang, H., & Pei, B. (2019). Beyond positive and negative emotions: Looking into the role of achievement emotions in discussion forums of MOOCs. The Internet and Higher Education, 43, 100690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100690
Yang, B., Tang, H., Hao, L., & Rose, J. (2022). Untangling chaos in discussion forums: A temporal analysis of topic-relevant forum posts in MOOCs. Computers & Education, 178(2022), 104402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104402
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Concord Consortium, especially Dr. Paul Horwitz and Cynthia McIntyre for supporting this work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tang, H., Arslan, O., Xing, W. et al. Exploring collaborative problem solving in virtual laboratories: a perspective of socially shared metacognition. J Comput High Educ 35, 296–319 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-022-09318-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-022-09318-1