Abstract
To understand the conceptualizations of forgiveness more comprehensively, both the cognitive and emotional aspects of forgiveness were investigated across different cultures. Two studies examined cultural similarities and differences in the conceptualizations of forgiveness. In Study 1, we compared idioms of the Chinese and English languages. In Study 2, we compared transgression-related writings between Hong Kong Chinese and Americans. In Study 1 (N = 204), we found that the basic presumptions of forgiveness (i.e., the recognition of transgression and the idea of cancelling debt) were similar across cultures. The cognitive dimension of forgiveness (which involves virtues that preserve social relationships) was more frequently observed in Chinese idioms than English idioms. In Study 2 (N = 68), we found that similar emotional responses (e.g., shame and guilt) arose across cultures following one’s own wrongdoing. Chinese writers were more likely to adopt higher cognitive processing in understanding forgiveness than American writers, as was reflected in their writings.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, G. (2005). The cultural grounding of personal relationship: Enemyship in north American and west African worlds. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(6), 948–968.
Adams, G., & Plaut, V. C. (2003). The cultural grounding of personal relationship: Friendship in north American and west African worlds. Personal Relationships, 10, 333–348.
Augsburger, D. W. (1996). Helping people forgive. Westminster: John Knox Press.
Baumeister, R. F., Exline, J. J., & Sommer, K. L. (1999). The victim role, grudge theory, and two dimensions of forgiveness. In E. L. Worthington Jr. (Ed.), Dimensions of forgiveness: Psychological research and theological perspectives (pp. 79–104). Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press.
Belgrave, F. Z. (2010). In K. W. Allison (Ed.), African American psychology: From Africa to America. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Day, R. D., & Acock, A. (2013). Marital well-being and religiousness as mediated by relational virtue and equality. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75, 164–177.
Emmers-Sommer, T. M. (2003). When partners falter: Repair after a transgression. In D. J. Canary & M. Dainton (Eds.), Maintaining relationships through communication: Relational, contextual, and cultural variations (pp. 185–205). Mawah: Erlbaum.
Exline, J. J., Worthington Jr., E. L., Hill, P., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Forgiveness and justice: A research agenda for social and personality psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 7, 337–348.
Fu, H., Watkins, D., & Hui, E. K. F. (2004). Personality correlates of the disposition towards interpersonal forgiveness : A Chinese perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 39, 305–316.
Ho, M. Y., & Fung, H. H. (2011). A dynamic model of forgiveness: A cross-cultural perspective. Review of General Psychology, 15, 77–84.
Hook, J., Worthington, E. L., Davis, D. E., Watkins, D., Hui, E., Luo, W., Fu, H., Shulruf, B., Morris, P., & Reyna, S. H. (2013). A China-New Zealand comparison of forgiveness. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 16(4), 286–291.
Hook, J., Worthington, E. L., & Utsey, S. O. (2009). Collectivism, forgiveness, and social harmony. The Counseling Psychologist, 37, 821–847.
Hui, V. K. Y., & Bond, M. H. (2009). Target’s face loss, motivations, and forgiveness following relational transgression: Comparing Chinese and US cultures. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26, 123–140.
Karremans, J. C., Regalia, C., Paleari, F. G., Finchan, F. D., Cui M., & Takada, N. et al. (2011). Maintaining harmony acorss the globe: The cross-cultural association between closeness and interpersonal forgiveness. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2, 443-451.
Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McCullough, M. E., Pargament, K. I., & Thoresen, C. E. (2000). The psychology of forgiveness: History, conceptual issues, and overview. In M. E. MuCullough, K. I. Pargament, & C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Theory, research and practice (pp. 1–16). New York & London: The Guilford Press.
McCullough, M. E., Bono, G., & Root, L. M. (2007). Rumination, emotion, and forgiveness: Three longitudinal studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 490–505.
McCullough, M. E., Root, L. M., & Cohen, A. D. (2006). Writing about the benefits of an interpersonal transgression facilitates forgiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 887–897.
McCullough, M. E., Root, L. M., Tabak, B., & Witvliet, C. V. O. (2009). Forgiveness. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 427–435). New York: Oxford.
Mukashema, I., & Mullet, E. (2010). Reconciliation sentiment among victims of genocide in Rwanda: Conceptualizations, and relationships with mental health. Social Indicators Research, 99(1), 25–39.
Mullet, E., Barros, J., Frongia, L., Usai, V., Neto, F., & Rivière-Shafighi, S. (2003). Religious involvement and the forgiving personality. Journal of Personality, 71, 1–19.
Orth, U., Berking, M., Walker, N., & Znoj, H. (2008). Forgiveness and psychological adjustment following interpersonal transgressions: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 365–385.
Owen, A. D. (2008). A cross-cultural study of the concept and process of forgiveness. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Patrick, S., Beckenbach, J., Sells, J., & Reardon, R.F. (2013). An empirical investigation into justice, grace, and forgiveness: Paths to relationship satisfaction. The Family Journal: Counselling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 21, 146-153.
Sandage, S. J., Hill, P. C., & Vang, H. C. (2003). Toward a multicultural positive psychology: Indigenous forgiveness and Hmong culture. The Counseling Psychologist, 31, 564–592.
Sandage, S. J., & Wiens, T. W. (2001). Contextualizing models of humility of forgiveness : A reply to Gassin. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 29, 201–211.
Shi, W., & Yuhong, J. (2015). Comparison and contrast between English and Chinese idioms from cultural connotation perspective. Studies in Literature and Language, 10, 102–113.
Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral.
Wade, N. G., & Worthington, E. L. (2003). Overcoming interpersonal offenses: Is forgiveness the only way to deal with unforgiveness? Journal of Counseling and Development, 81, 343–353.
Wiseman, J. P., & Duck, S. (1995). Having and managing enemies: A very challenging relationship. In S. Duck & J. T. Wood (Eds.), Confronting relationship challenges (pp. 43–72). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Worthington Jr., E. L. (2006). Forgiveness and reconciliation. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Both authors declare that both of them have no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ho, M.Y., Worthington, E.L. Is the concept of forgiveness universal? a cross-cultural perspective comparing western and eastern cultures. Curr Psychol 39, 1749–1756 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9875-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-9875-x