Abstract
Higher education institutions rely on part-time faculty to teach a large percentage of courses in a range of disciplines. Existing research indicates that instruction by part-time faculty can negatively impact academic outcomes, student retention, and subsequent interest in a field of study. This study investigates if using a motivational information system can help close this performance gap. It introduces a type of motivational information system called an educational engagement information system (EEIS). EEISs draw on principles of behavioral economics, motivation theory, and learning cognition theory to help students want to improve their performance. The study compared student failure status in course sections taught by part- and full-time instructors both with and without an EEIS. Results suggest that using an EEIS can help improve student failure rates in courses taught by part-time faculty members and bring students’ performance to parity with the performance of students taught by a full-time instructor. Features of an EEIS, such as the additional structure, grade and outcome trackers, and motivational elements, can augment a part-time instructor’s approach and may compensate for limitations sometimes associated with part-time instruction including limitations of expertise, time, or rewards that can have a negative impact on students’ academic outcomes. As a result, students can experience higher completion rates and better performance.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abrams, S. S., & Walsh, S. (2014). Gamified vocabulary. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 58(1), 49–58.
American Association of University Professors. (n.d.). Background facts on contingent faculty positions. https://www.aaup.org/issues/contingency/background-facts
Andrade, M. S. (2013). Global learning by distance: Principles and practicalities for learner support. International Journal of Online Pedagogy and Course Design, 3(1), 66–81. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijopcd.2013010105
Andrade, M. S. (2014a). Course embedded support for online English language learners. Open Praxis, 6(1), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.6.1.90
Andrade, M. S. (2014b). Dialogue and structure: Enabling learner self-regulation in technology enhanced learning environments. European Journal of Educational Research, 13(5), 563–574.
Andrade, M. S., & Bunker, E. L. (2009). Language learning from a distance: A new model for success. Distance Education, 30(1), 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587910902845956
Benjamin, E. (2002). How over reliance upon contingent appointments diminishes faculty involvement in student learning. Peer Review, 5(1), 4–10.
Benjamin, E. (2003). Reappraisal and implications for policy and research. New Directions for Higher Education, 123, 79–113.
Bettinger, E. P., & Long, B. T. (2010). Does cheaper mean better? The impact of using adjunct instructors on student outcomes. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 92(3), 598–613.
Bolitzer, L. A. (2019). I really wanted to attend but it never happened: Instructional development for adjunct faculty. The Journal of Faculty Development, 33(2), 69–76.
Burroughs, B. B. (2019). Managing the car when you cannot control the tracks: Understanding and supporting adjunct instructors. Teaching Theology & Religion, 22, 306–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/teth.12510
Chapman, J. R., & Rich, P. J. (2018). Does educational gamification improve students’ motivation? If so, which game elements work best? Journal of Education for Business, 93(7), 315–322.
Chen, K., Hansen, Z., & Lowe, S. (2021). Why do we inflate grades? The effect of adjunct faculty employment on instructor grading standards. Journal of Human Resources, 56(3), 878–921. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.56.3.0518-9493R2
Davis, F. D., Bagozzi, R. P., & Warshaw, P. R. (1992). Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation to use computers in the workplace. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 1111–1132.
de Marcos, L., Domınguez, A., Saenz-de-Navarrete, J., & Pages, C. (2014). An empirical study comparing gamification and social networking on e-learning. Computers & Education, 75, 82–91.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Self-determination. Wiley.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Delphinium (2021). Delphi m.e. | Home. http://delphi-me.com/
Dembo, M. H., Junge, L. G., & Lynch, R. (2006). Becoming a self-regulated learner: Implications for web-based education. In H. F. O’Neil & R. S. Perez (Eds.), Web-based learning: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 185–202). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Denny, P., McDonald, F., Empson, R., Kelly, P., & Petersen, A. (2018). Empirical support for a causal relationship between gamification and learning outcomes. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Montreal QC, Canada.
Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. (2011). From game design elements to gamefulness: Defining “gamification”. Paper presented at the 15th Annual International MindTrek, Tampere, Finland. https://doi.org/10.1145/2181037.2181040
Domínguez, A., Saenz-de-Navarrete, J., De-Marcos, L., Fernández-Sanz, L., Pagés, C., & Martínez-Herráiz, J. J. (2013). Gamifying learning experiences: Practical implications and outcomes. Computers & Education, 63, 380–392.
Drace, K. (2013). Gamification of the laboratory experience to encourage student engagement. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education, 14(2), 273–274. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v14i2.632
Farzan, R., DiMicco, J. M., Millen, D. R., Dugan, C., Geyer, W., & Brownholtz, E. A. (2008). Results from deploying a participation incentive mechanism within the enterprise. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 563–572.
Field, A. (2017). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. SAGE Publications.
Figlio, D. N., Schapiro, M. O., & Soter, K. B. (2015). Are tenure track professors better teachers? Review of Economics and Statistics, 97(4), 715–724.
Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 331–362.
Garaus, C., Furtmüller, G., & Güttel, W. H. (2016). The hidden power of small rewards: The effects of insufficient external rewards on autonomous motivation to learn. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 15(1), 45–59.
Goehle, G. (2013). Gamification and web-based homework. Primus, 23(3), 234–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511970.2012.736451
Goodwin, J. A., & Gilbert, B. D. (2001). Cafeteria-style grading in general chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 78(4), 490.
Gravetter, F. J., & Forzano, L. A. B. (2018). Research methods for the behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning.
Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., & Sarsa, H. (2014). Does gamification work?—A literature review of empirical studies on gamification. Paper presented at the Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.
Hanus, M. D., & Fox, J. (2015). Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance. Computers & Education, 80, 152–161.
Holman, C., Aguilar, S., & Fishman, B. (2013). GradeCraft: What can we learn from a game-inspired learning management system?. In Proceedings of the third international conference on learning analytics and knowledge (pp. 260–264).
Hurst, D., Cleveland-Innes, M., Hawranik, P., & Gauvreau, S. (2013). Online graduate student identity and professional skills development. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 43(3), 36–55.
Instructure. (2020). Educational software development. https://www.instructure.com/
Jaeger, A. J., & Eagan, M. K. (2009). Effects of exposure to part-time faculty on associate’s degree completion. Community College Review, 36, 167–194.
Jaeger, A. J., & Eagen, M. K. (2011). Examining retention and contingent faculty use in a state system of public higher education. Educational Policy, 25(3), 507–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904810361723
Jaeger, A. J., & Hinz, D. (2008). The effects of part-time faculty on first semester freshmen retention: A predictive model using logistic regression. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 10, 265–286.
Kenton, W., & Walters, T., (2020). Behavioral economics. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/behavioraleconomics.asp#:~:text=Behavioral%20Economics%20is%20the%20study,2
Kezar, A., DePaola, T., & Scott, D. (2019). The gig academy: Mapping labor in the neoliberal university. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Koivisto, J., & Hamari, J. (2019). The rise of motivational information systems: A review of gamification research. International Journal of Information Management, 45, 191–210.
Kaufmann, D. A. (2018). Reflection: Benefits of gamification in online higher education. Journal of Instructional Research, 7, 125–132.
Mallin, M. L., & Pullins, E. B. (2009). The moderating effect of control systems on the relationship between commission and salesperson intrinsic motivation in a customer oriented environment. Industrial Marketing Management, 38(7), 769–777.
McCarney, R., Warner, J., Iliffe, S., Van Haselen, R., Griffin, M., & Fisher, P. (2007). The Hawthorne effect: A randomized, controlled trial. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 7(1), 30.
McEvoy, G. M. (2011). Increasing intrinsic motivation to learn in organizational behavior classes. Journal of Management Education, 35(4), 468–503.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2020). The condition of education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_csc.asp
Nevin, C. R., Westfall, A. O., Rodriguez, J. M., Dempsey, D. M., Cherrington, A., Roy, B., Patel, M., & Willig, J. H. (2014). Gamification as a tool for enhancing graduate medical education. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 90(1070), 685–693. https://doi.org/10.1136/postgradmedj-2013-132486
Ran, F. X., & Xu, D. (2017). How and why do adjunct instructors affect students’ academic outcomes? Evidence from four-year colleges. A CAPSEE working paper. https://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/media/k2/attachments/how-and-why-do-adjunct-instructors-affect-students-academic-outcomes.pdf
Ran, X., & Xu, D. (2018). Does contractual form matter? The impact of different types of non-tenure-track faculty on college students’ academic outcomes. Journal of Human Resources, 54(4), 1081–1120.
Reeve, J. (2002). Self-determination theory applied to educational settings. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 183–203). University of Rochester Press.
Reichardt, C. S. (2009). Quasi-experimental design. The SAGE Handbook of Quantitative Methods in Psychology, 46(71), 490–500.
Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (2008). Essentials of behavioral research: methods and data analysis (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61(2020), 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Sanchez, E., Young, S., & Jouneau-Sion, C. (2017). Classcraft: From gamification to ludicization of classroom management. Education and Information Technologies, 22(2), 497–513.
Schuetz, P. (2002). Instructional practices of part-time and full-time faculty. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2002(118), 39–46.
Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press.
Tsay, H. H. C., Kofinas, A., & Luo, J. (2018). Enhancing student learning experience with technology-mediated gamification: An empirical study. Computers and Education, 121, 1–7.
UBS (2020). Richard H. Thaler. Nobel 2017. Perspectives on nudge theory & behavioral economics. https://www.ubs.com/microsites/nobel-perspectives/en/laureates/richard-thaler.html?gclid=CjwKCAjwq_D7BRADEiwAVMDdHr_wvVr9S35RUk-_55U-yNW-e125oNvpW-tepEnAL5eZ4H69o_PXvhoCxPQQAvD_BwE&campID=SEM-BRAND&s_kwcid=AL!602!3!460211322638!e!!g!!behavioral%20economics&ef_id=CjwKCAjwq_D7BRADEiwAVMDdHr_wvVr9S35RUk-_55U-yNW-e125oNvpW-tepEnAL5eZ4H69o_PXvhoCxPQQAvD_BwE:G:s&s_kwcid=AL!602!3!460211322638!e!!g!!behavioral%20economics
van der Heijden, H. (2004). User acceptance of hedonic information systems. MIS Quarterly, 28(4), 695–704.
Xu, D. (2019). Academic performance in community colleges: The influences of part-time and full-time instructors. American Educational Research Journal, 56(2), 368–406. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831218796131
Zhu, M. (2021). Limited contracts, limited quality? Effects of adjunct instructors on student outcomes. Economics of Education Review, 85(2021), 102177.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1994). Dimensions of academic self-regulation: A conceptual framework for education. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 3–21). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Academic studying and the development of personal skill: A self-regulatory perspective. Educational Psychologist, 33, 73–86.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantis, A. (1997). Developmental phases in self-regulation: Shifting from process to outcome goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 29–36.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
We have no potential conflicts of interest to report.
Ethical approval
This study was conducted with IRB approval.
Informed consent
Participants in the treatment/control group approved an informed consent form. The full-time faculty, non-delphinium data (grades, withdrawals) was archival and informed consent was not obtained.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Chapman, J.R., Andrade, M. Improving part-time instructors’ student failure rate with an educational engagement information system. Education Tech Research Dev (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-024-10352-2
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-024-10352-2