Abstract
The elevated levels of fine particulate matter (PM) and its associated health concerns are one of the major cause of apprehension for society as well as for policymakers in the region of Delhi-NCR. Atmospheric secondary aerosols are reported to hold one of the major fractions of PM. Considering its adverse effects and complex process of formation, the present article focuses on a critical review of its categorization based on formation mechanism, contribution to overall ambient aerosol load in the Delhi region, and other responsible factors. The formation of secondary aerosol is primarily governed by the abundance of precursor pollutants with variations in relative humidity, temperature, and solar radiation, which is evident in the seasons of post-monsoon and winter when there are higher emissions of NOx, SOx, NH3, VOCs, HCl, etc., which along with conducive meteorology, favor the increased rate of particle formation. The review reveals that secondary inorganic aerosols comprising of sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium contribute 24%, 15%, 21%, and 23% of PM10 during winter, summer, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons, respectively, whereas the same is found to be higher in PM2.5, with 29%, 22%, 27%, and 28%. Thus, highlighting the need for comprehensive knowledge of secondary aerosol formation and its contributions in metropolitan areas such as Delhi, which will assist policymakers in determining the policies needed to curtail city-specific precursor factors, thereby reducing the ambient secondary aerosol concentration.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study. This is a review article and data were compiled from secondary literature.
References
Acharja, P., Ali, K., Trivedi, D. K., et al. (2020). Characterization of atmospheric trace gases and water soluble inorganic chemical ions of PM1 and PM2.5 at Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi during 2017–18 winter. Science of The Total Environment, 729, 138800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138800
Acharja, P., Ali, K., Ghude, S. D., et al. (2022). Enhanced secondary aerosol formation driven by excess ammonia during fog episodes in Delhi. India. Chemosphere, 289, 133155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.133155
Adams, P. J., Seinfeld, J. H., & Koch, D. M. (1999). Global concentrations of tropospheric sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium aerosol simulated in a general circulation model. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 104, 13791–13823. https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JD900083
Ahlawat, A., Mishra, S. K., Goel, V., et al. (2019). Modelling aerosol optical properties over urban environment (New Delhi) constrained with balloon observation. Atmospheric Environment, 205, 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.02.006
Anderson, J. O., Thundiyil, J. G., & Stolbach, A. (2012). Clearing the air: A review of the effects of particulate matter air pollution on human health. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 8, 166–175.
Balakrishnan, K., Dey, S., Gupta, T., et al. (2019). The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: The Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet Planet Heal, 3, e26–e39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4
Bawase, M., Sathe, Y., Khandaskar, H., & Thipse, S. (2021). Chemical composition and source attribution of PM2.5 and PM10 in Delhi-National Capital Region (NCR) of India: Results from an extensive seasonal campaign. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 78, 35–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-020-09412-7
Behera, S. N., & Sharma, M. (2010). Reconstructing primary and secondary components of PM 2.5 composition for an urban atmosphere. Aerosol Science and Technology, 44, 983–992. https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2010.504245
Beichertt, P., & Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. (1996). Knudsen cell studies of the uptake of gaseous HNO3 and other oxides of nitrogen on solid NaCl: The role of surface-adsorbed water. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 100, 15218–15228. https://doi.org/10.1021/JP960925U
Bhandari, S., Gani, S., Patel, K., et al. (2020). Sources and atmospheric dynamics of organic aerosol in New Delhi, India: Insights from receptor modeling. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20, 735–752. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-735-2020
Bhowmik, H. S., Naresh, S., Bhattu, D., et al. (2021). Temporal and spatial variability of carbonaceous species (EC; OC; WSOC and SOA) in PM2.5 aerosol over five sites of Indo-Gangetic Plain. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 12, 375–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2020.09.019
Chen, T., Liu, Y., Ma, Q., et al. (2019). Significant source of secondary aerosol: Formation from gasoline evaporative emissions in the presence of SO2 and NH3. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19, 8063–8081. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-8063-2019
Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Nenes, A., et al. (2022). Ammonium chloride associated aerosol liquid water enhances haze in Delhi, India. Environmental Science and Technology, 56, 7163–7173. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS.EST.2C00650/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/ES2C00650_0004.JPEG
Claeys M, Graham B, Vas G, et al (2004) Formation of secondary organic aerosols through photooxidation of isoprene. Science (80- ) 303:1173–1176. https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.1092805/SUPPL_FILE/CLAEYS.SOM.PDF
CPCB (2017) Graded Response Action Plan for Delhi & NCR. Govt of India 1–4
Ehn, M., Thornton, J. A., Kleist, E., et al. (2014). (2014) A large source of low-volatility secondary organic aerosol. Nat, 5067489(506), 476–479. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13032
Finlayson-Pitts, B., & Pitts, J. N. (2000). Chemistry of the upper and lower atmosphere. Elsevier.
Friedlander, S. K., Koch, W., & Main, H. H. (1991). Scavenging of a coagulating fine aerosol by a coarse particle mode. Journal of Aerosol Science, 22, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-8502(91)90088-Y
Friedlander SK, York N, Oxford • (2000) Smoke, dust, and haze
Gadi, R., Shivani, S. S. K., & Mandal, T. K. (2019). Source apportionment and health risk assessment of organic constituents in fine ambient aerosols (PM2.5): A complete year study over National Capital Region of India. Chemosphere, 221, 583–596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.067
Gani, S., Bhandari, S., Seraj, S., et al. (2019). Submicron aerosol composition in the world’s most polluted megacity: The Delhi Aerosol Supersite study. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 19, 6843–6859. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-6843-2019
Gautam, A. S., Tripathi, S. N., Joshi, A., et al. (2021). First surface measurement of variation of Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) concentration over the Pristine Himalayan region of Garhwal, Uttarakhand India. Atmospheric Environment, 246, 118123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.118123
Girshick SL, Chiu C-P, Mcmurry PH (2007) Aerosol science and technology time-dependent aerosol models and homogeneous nucleation rates time-dependent aerosol models and homogeneous nucleation rateshttps://doi.org/10.1080/02786829008959461
Goyal, P., Gulia, S., Goyal, S. K., & Kumar, R. (2019). Assessment of the effectiveness of policy interventions for Air Quality Control Regions in Delhi city. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26, 30967–30979. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06236-1
Gulia, S., Shiva Nagendra, S. M., Khare, M., & Khanna, I. (2015). Urban air quality management-A review. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 6, 286–304. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2015.033
Gulia, S., Mittal, A., & Khare, M. (2018). Quantitative evaluation of source interventions for urban air quality improvement - A case study of Delhi city. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 9, 577–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2017.12.003
Gulia, S., Goyal, N., Mendiratta, S., et al. (2021). COVID 19 lockdown - Air quality reflections in Indian cities. Aerosol Air Qual Res, 21, 200308. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.200308
Gunthe, S. S., Rose, D., Su, H., et al. (2011). Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) from fresh and aged air pollution in the megacity region of Beijing. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 11, 11023–11039. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-11023-2011
Gunthe, S. S., Liu, P., Panda, U., et al. (2021). Enhanced aerosol particle growth sustained by high continental chlorine emission in India. Nature Geoscience, 14, 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-00677-x
Guo, H., Sahu, S. K., Kota, S. H., & Zhang, H. (2019). Characterization and health risks of criteria air pollutants in Delhi, 2017. Chemosphere, 225, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.02.154
Gurjar, B. R., Jain, A., Sharma, A., et al. (2010). Human health risks in megacities due to air pollution. Atmospheric Environment, 44, 4606–4613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.08.011
Harrison, R. M., Deacon, A. R., Jones, M. R., & Appleby, R. S. (1997). Sources and processes affection concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 particulate matter in Birmingham (U.K.). Atmospheric Environment, 31, 4103–4117. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00296-3
IQAir. (2020). World Air Quality Report. World Air Qual Rep, 2020, 1–35.
Jain, S., Sharma, S. K., Choudhary, N., et al. (2017). Chemical characteristics and source apportionment of PM2.5 using PCA/APCS, UNMIX, and PMF at an urban site of Delhi. India. Environ Sci Pollut Res, 24, 14637–14656. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8925-5
Jain, S., Sharma, S. K., Vijayan, N., & Mandal, T. K. (2020). Seasonal characteristics of aerosols (PM2.5 and PM10) and their source apportionment using PMF: A four year study over Delhi India. Environmental Pollution, 262, 114337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114337
Kalberer, M., Yu, J., Cocker, D. R., et al. (2000). Aerosol formation in the cyclohexene-ozone system. Environmental Science and Technology, 34, 4894–4901. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES001180F/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/ES001180FF00005.JPEG
Kanellopoulos, P. G., Verouti, E., Chrysochou, E., et al. (2021). Primary and secondary organic aerosol in an urban/industrial site: Sources, health implications and the role of plastic enriched waste burning. Journal of Environmental Sciences (china), 99, 222–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2020.06.012
Katoch, A., & Kulshrestha, U. C. (2021). Gaseous and particulate reactive nitrogen species in the indoor air of selected households in New Delhi. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-08991-6
Kotnala, G., Sharma, S. K., & Mandal, T. K. (2020). Influence of vehicular emissions (NO, NO2, CO and NMHCs) on the mixing ratio of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) in Delhi, India. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 78, 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00689-8
Kulshrestha, U. C. (2020). New normal’ of COVID-19 Need of new environmental standards. Current World Environment, 15, 151–153. https://doi.org/10.12944/cwe.15.2.01
Kulshrestha, U., & Mishra, M. (2019). Ozone pollution from urban sources: A case study. Geogr. You, 19, 30–35.
Kulshrestha, U., & Mishra, M. (2020). A review on long range transport of air pollution in south Asia. VayuMandal, 46, 21–30.
Kulshrestha, U. C., Raman, R. S., Kulshrestha, M. J., et al. (2009). Secondary aerosol formation and identification of regional source locations by PSCF analysis in the Indo-Gangetic region of India. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 63, 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-010-9156-z
Kumar, A., Hakkim, H., Sinha, B., & Sinha, V. (2021). Gridded 1 km × 1 km emission inventory for paddy stubble burning emissions over north-west India constrained by measured emission factors of 77 VOCs and district-wise crop yield data. Science of the Total Environment, 789, 148064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148064
Lalchandani, V., Kumar, V., Tobler, A., et al. (2021). Real-time characterization and source apportionment of fine particulate matter in the Delhi megacity area during late winter. Science of the Total Environment, 770, 145324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145324
Latha, R., Mukherjee, A., Dahiya, K., et al. (2022). On the varied emission fingerprints of particulate matter over typical locations of NCR (Delhi) – A perspective for mitigation plans. Journal of Environmental Management, 311, 114834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114834
Lawrence, M. G., & Lelieveld, J. (2010). Atmospheric pollutant outflow from southern Asia: A review. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10, 11017–11096. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-11017-2010
Li, J., Wang, G., Aggarwal, S. G., et al. (2014). Comparison of abundances, compositions and sources of elements, inorganic ions and organic compounds in atmospheric aerosols from Xi’an and New Delhi, two megacities in China and India. Science of the Total Environment, 476–477, 485–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.01.011
Liu, Q., Jia, X., Quan, J., et al. (2018). New positive feedback mechanism between boundary layer meteorology and secondary aerosol formation during severe haze events. Science and Reports, 8, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-24366-3
Manchanda C, Kumar M, Singh V (2021) Meteorology governs the variation of Delhi’s high particulate-bound chloride levels. Chemosphere 132879https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132879
Meng, Z. Y., Lin, W. L., Jiang, X. M., et al. (2011). Characteristics of atmospheric ammonia over Beijing, China. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 11, 6139–6151. https://doi.org/10.5194/ACP-11-6139-2011
Mishra M, Kulshrestha UC (2021a) Source impact analysis using char-ec/soot-ec ratios in the central indo-gangetic plain (Igp) of India. Aerosol Air Qual Res 21https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.200628
Mishra M, Kulshrestha UC (2021b) Spatio-temporal variation of atmospheric gaseous and particulate reactive nitrogen over northern India. Curr World Environ Special Issue:53–67. https://doi.org/10.12944/cwe.16.special-issue1.05
Mishra, M., & Kulshrestha, U. (2017). Chemical characteristics and deposition fluxes of dust-carbon mixed coarse aerosols at three sites of Delhi, NCR. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 74, 399–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-016-9349-1
Mishra, M., & Kulshrestha, U. C. (2020). Extreme air pollution events spiking ionic levels at urban and rural sites of Indo-Gangetic plain. Aerosol Air Qual Res, 20, 1266–1281. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2019.12.0622
Murphy, S. M., Sorooshian, A., Kroll, J. H., et al. (2007). Secondary aerosol formation from atmospheric reactions of aliphatic amines. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 7, 2313–2337. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-2313-2007
Nagar, P. K., & Sharma, M. (2022). A hybrid model to improve WRF-Chem performance for crop burning emissions of PM2.5 and secondary aerosols in North India. Urban Climate, 41, 101084. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.UCLIM.2022.101084
Nagar, P. K., Singh, D., Sharma, M., et al. (2017). Characterization of PM2.5 in Delhi: Role and impact of secondary aerosol, burning of biomass, and municipal solid waste and crustal matter. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24, 25179–25189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0171-3
Nagpure, A. S., Gurjar, B. R., & Martel, J. C. (2014). Human health risks in national capital territory of Delhi due to air pollution. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 5, 371–380. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2014.043
Nenes, A., Pandis, S. N., Weber, R. J., & Russell, A. (2020). Aerosol pH and liquid water content determine when particulate matter is sensitive to ammonia and nitrate availability. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20, 3249–3258. https://doi.org/10.5194/ACP-20-3249-2020
Pandis, S. N., Harley, R. A., Cass, G. R., & Seinfeld, J. H. (1992). Secondary organic aerosol formation and transport. Atmospheric Environment. Part A. General Topics, 26, 2269–2282. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-1686(92)90358-R
Pant, P., & Harrison, R. M. (2012). Critical review of receptor modelling for particulate matter: A case study of India. Atmospheric Environment, 49, 1–12.
Pant, P., Shukla, A., Kohl, S. D., et al. (2015). Characterization of ambient PM2.5 at a pollution hotspot in New Delhi, India and inference of sources. Atmospheric Environment, 109, 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.02.074
Peng, J., Hu, M., Shang, D., et al. (2021). Explosive secondary aerosol formation during severe haze in the north china plain. Environmental Science and Technology, 55, 2189–2207.
Perrino, C., Tiwari, S., Catrambone, M., et al. (2011). Chemical characterization of atmospheric PM in Delhi, India, during different periods of the year including Diwali festival. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 2, 418–427. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2011.048
Pio, C. A., Legrand, M., Alves, C. A., et al. (2008). Chemical composition of atmospheric aerosols during the 2003 summer intense forest fire period. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 7530–7543. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2008.05.032
Prakash, J., Lohia, T., Mandariya, A. K., et al. (2018). Chemical characterization and quantitativ e assessment of source-specific health risk of trace metals in PM1.0 at a road site of Delhi India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 8747–8764. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-1174-9
Prospects WE (2014) World Economic Prospects, Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Rajput, P., & Gupta, T. (2020). Instrumental variable analysis in atmospheric and aerosol chemistry. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8, 566136. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.566136
Rajput, P., Gupta, T., & Kumar, A. (2016). The diurnal variability of sulfate and nitrate aerosols during wintertime in the Indo-Gangetic Plain: Implications for heterogeneous phase chemistry. RSC Advances, 6, 89879–89887. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra19595d
Rajput, P., Singh, D. K., Singh, A. K., & Gupta, T. (2018). Chemical composition and source-apportionment of sub-micron particles during wintertime over Northern India: New insights on influence of fog-processing. Environmental Pollution, 233, 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.036
Ram, K., & Sarin, M. M. (2011). Day-night variability of EC, OC, WSOC and inorganic ions in urban environment of Indo-Gangetic Plain: Implications to secondary aerosol formation. Atmospheric Environment, 45, 460–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.09.055
Ram, K., Tripathi, S. N., Sarin, M. M., & Bhattu, D. (2014). Primary and secondary aerosols from an urban site (Kanpur) in the Indo-Gangetic Plain: Impact on CCN, CN concentrations and optical properties. Atmospheric Environment, 89, 655–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.02.009
Rastogi, N., Singh, A., Sarin, M. M., & Singh, D. (2016). Temporal variability of primary and secondary aerosols over northern India: Impact of biomass burning emissions. Atmospheric Environment, 125, 396–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.06.010
Rizwan, S. A., Nongkynrih, B., & Gupta, S. K. (2013). Air pollution in Delhi: Its magnitude and effects on health. Indian J Community Med, 38, 4–8. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-0218.106617
Roy, S., Singh, R., & Kumar, M. (2011). An analysis of local spatial temperature patterns in the Delhi Metropolitan Area. Physical Geography, 32, 114–138. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3646.32.2.114
Saraswati, S. S. K., Saxena, M., & Mandal, T. K. (2019). Characteristics of gaseous and particulate ammonia and their role in the formation of secondary inorganic particulate matter at Delhi, India. Atmospheric Research, 218, 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.11.010
Satheesh, S. K., & Ramanathan, V. (2000). Large differences in tropical aerosol forcing at the top of the atmosphere and Earth’s surface. Nature, 405, 60–63. https://doi.org/10.1038/35011039
Seethala, C., Pandithurai, G., Fast, J. D., et al. (2011). (2012) Evaluating WRF-Chem multi-scale model in simulating aerosol radiative properties over the tropics — A case study over India. Mapan, 264(26), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12647-011-0025-2
Seinfeld, J. H., & Pandis, S. N. (1998). Atmospheric chemistry and physics: From air pollution to climate change. AIP Publishing.
Sharma, D., & Kulshrestha, U. C. (2014). Spatial and temporal patterns of air pollutants in rural and urban areas of India. Environmental Pollution, 195, 276–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2014.08.026
Sharma, S. K., Mandal, T. K., Saxena, M., et al. (2014). Variation of OC, EC, WSIC and trace metals of PM10 in Delhi, India. J Atmos Solar-Terrestrial Phys, 113, 10–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2014.02.008
Sharma, S. K., Mandal, T. K., Shenoy, D. M., et al. (2015). Variation of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition of PM10 at urban sites of Indo Gangetic Plain (IGP) of India. Bulletin of Environment Contamination and Toxicology, 95, 661–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-015-1660-z
Sharma, A., Sharma, S. K., & Mandal, T. K. (2021). Ozone sensitivity factor: NOX or NMHCs?: A case study over an urban site in Delhi. India. Urban Clim, 39, 100980. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.UCLIM.2021.100980
Sharma S, Saraf MR (2018) Source Apportionment of PM2.5 & PM10 Concentrations of Delhi NCR for Identification of Major Sources.
Shivani, G. R., Sharma, S. K., & Mandal, T. K. (2019). Seasonal variation, source apportionment and source attributed health risk of fine carbonaceous aerosols over National Capital Region India. Chemosphere, 237, 124500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124500
Shrivastava, M., Andreae, M. O., Artaxo, P., et al. (2019). Urban pollution greatly enhances formation of natural aerosols over the Amazon rainforest. Nature Communications, 10, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08909-4
Shukla, A. K., Lalchandani, V., Bhattu, D., et al. (2021). Real-time quantification and source apportionment of fine particulate matter including organics and elements in Delhi during summertime. Atmospheric Environment, 261, 118598. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2021.118598
Singh, A., & Dey, S. (2012). Influence of aerosol composition on visibility in megacity Delhi. Atmospheric Environment, 62, 367–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.08.048
Singh, N., Murari, V., Kumar, M., Barman S. C., & Banerji, T. (2017). Fine particulates over South Asia: Review and meta-analysis of PM2.5 source apportionment through receptor model. Environmental Pollution, 223, 121–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.071
Singh, A., Rastogi, N., Kumar, V., et al. (2021). Sources and characteristics of light-absorbing fine particulates over Delhi through the synergy of real-time optical and chemical measurements. Atmospheric Environment, 252, 118338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118338
Srivastava, A. K., Thomas, A., Hooda, R. K., et al. (2021). How secondary inorganic aerosols from Delhi influence aerosol optical and radiative properties at a downwind sub-urban site over Indo-Gangetic Basin? Atmospheric Environment, 248, 118246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118246
Sun, J., Liu, L., Xu, L., et al. (2018). Key role of nitrate in phase transitions of urban particles: Implications of important reactive surfaces for secondary aerosol formation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 123, 1234–1243. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027264
Talukdar, S., Tripathi, S. N., Lalchandani, V., et al. (2021). Air pollution in new delhi during late winter: An overview of a group of campaign studies focusing on composition and sources. Atmosphere (basel), 12, 1432.
Tilgner A, Schaefer T, Alexander B, et al (2021) Acidity and the multiphase chemistry of atmospheric aqueous particles and clouds. Atmos Chem Phys 1–82https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2021-58
Tiwari, S., Srivastava, A. K., Bisht, D. S., et al. (2009). Black carbon and chemical characteristics of PM10 and PM 2.5 at an urban site of North India. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 62, 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-010-9148-z
Tiwari, R., Gupta, G. P., & Kulshrestha, U. C. (2016). Summer time dustfall fluxes of reactive nitrogen and other inorganic species over the tropical megacity of Indo-Gangetic plains. Earth Interactions, 20, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1175/EI-D-15-0053.1
Tiwari S, Srivastava • A K, Bisht • D S, et al (2013) Assessment of carbonaceous aerosol over Delhi in the Indo-Gangetic Basin: Characterization, sources and temporal variability. 65:1745–1764. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-012-0449-1
Tobler, A., Bhattu, D., Canonaco, F., et al. (2020). Chemical characterization of PM2.5 and source apportionment of organic aerosol in New Delhi India. Science of The Total Environment, 745, 140924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140924
Varotsos, C., Ondov, J., Tzanis, C., et al. (2012). An observational study of the atmospheric ultra-fine particle dynamics. Atmospheric Environment, 59, 312–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2012.05.015
Varotsos CA, Cracknell AP (2020) Remote Sensing Letters contribution to the success of the Sustainable Development Goals - UN 2030 agenda. 101080/2150704X20201753338 11:715–719. https://doi.org/10.1080/2150704X.2020.1753338
Xu, W., Kuang, Y., Liang, L., et al. (2020). Dust-dominated coarse particles as a medium for rapid secondary organic and inorganic aerosol formation in highly polluted air. Environmental Science and Technology, 54, 15710–15721. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c07243
Zang L, Wang Z, Zhu B, Zhang Y (2019) Roles of relative humidity in aerosol pollution aggravation over central China during wintertime. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16224422
Zhang, T., Cao, J.-J., Chow, J. C., et al. (2014). Characterization and seasonal variations of levoglucosan in fine particulate matter in Xi’an, China. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 64, 1317–1327. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2014.944959
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Manisha Mishra: literature review, original writing, and design of paper; Sunil Gulia: conceptualization, critical review, and re-write; Nidhi Shukla: critical review, corrections, and re-write; S.K. Goyal: conceptualization, critical review, and supervision, U.C. Kulshrestha: review and corrections.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Mishra, M., Gulia, S., Shukla, N. et al. Review of Secondary Aerosol Formation and Its Contribution in Air Pollution Load of Delhi NCR. Water Air Soil Pollut 234, 47 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-06047-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-06047-0