1 Introduction

Law faculties educate individuals who, upon graduation, pursue legal professions that are known as high social prestige. The process of legal education shapes a young person's personality and functioning in the future. In times of equality for women, and sometimes 'positive discrimination against women', one may be puzzled by the fact of the still relatively low number of women in the positions of deans of law faculties and vice-deans (in other words: deputy deans or associate deans)Footnote 1 in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Women are professionally active, make up a significant percentage of scientific researchers, and are successively increasing their participation in the representation of parliament (or the first chambers of parliament). In contrast, they remain underrepresented in the positions of deans and vice-deans of law faculties.

The underrepresentation of women in deanship in Central and Eastern Europe is attributed to a range of a few key factors quite well explained in the literature. First, it results from historical and societal norms as traditional gender roles and expectations have influenced career choices and opportunities available for women. Still, stereotypes associate leadership positions with men [9, 10]. Second, cultural norms and institutional practices can play a role in perpetuating gender imbalances [16]. Third, bias and discrimination which can manifest in hiring and promotion practices or pay disparities [3]. These factors can create barriers for women seeking leadership positions and contribute to the underrepresentation of women in academia. In general women deans are a relatively a new phenomenon [5, 12] even though “women have a distinct leadership style, specifically that women are more likely to utilize intuitive or natural leadership traits that emphasize interpersonal skills and relationships” [13].

The initial hypothesis states that gender inequality has been present in the deanship of analyzed law schools. The paper will aim to verify the hypothesis and will compare the gender situation in law school management positions to the general gender equality situation as examined in the analyzed part of Europe. Our research data is based on the numbers gathered from publicly available sources and accurate for the 2022/2023 academic year.

Comprehensive analysis of the central and Eastern European states will allow formulating the key conclusions and answering the following research questions:

(1) Are there significant differences in female participation in the law school deanship position among examined countries, especially comparing the EU member states and non-EU countries? (2) Is there a significant difference when comparison is drawn between public and non-public higher education institutions? (3) How are these numbers corresponding to the general participation of women in academia as examined by the European Institute for Gender Equality, the European Commission report?

The paper aims to analyze statistical data on female leadership (deanship) at public and non-public (if exisitng) law schools in the countries from the region of Central and Eastern Europe: Poland, Hungary, Czechia, Slovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Kosovo, Montenegro, Bosnia and Hercegovina.

Part 1 of the paper will draw a general picture of gender equality in academia as provided by the reports and analysis on the European level as well as in the literature based on empirical research. Part 2 will present the data on the female deanship and vice-deanship positions in the selected countries. Part 3 will provide overall statistics and formulate conclusions.

2 Gender Equality in Central and Eastern European Academia

To put the gathered statistics on the deanship male versus female ratio, a general gender equality picture as researched by the European institutions should be presented reflecting the situation in the analyzed countries. Firstly, a short overview of the Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025 will be presented setting gender-equal Europe as a goal of the European Union. Next, the Gender Equality Index data will be shown followed by even more specific data in the “She Figures”.

2.1 Gender Equality Strategy

The Gender Equality Strategy [1] adopted on the EU level through the European Commission in 2019 has certainly added long-needed attention to the gender equality problems across the Union deriving from the core provisions of the Treaty of the Functioning of the European Union, namely Article 8 reading: “In all its activities, the Union shall aim to eliminate inequalities, and to promote equality, between men and women”.

The woman-led Commission put together policy objectives and actions to achieve clearly stated goals: ending gender-based violence, challenging gender stereotypes; closing gender gaps in the labor market; achieving equal participation across different sectors of the economy; addressing the gender pay and pension gaps; closing the gender care gap and achieving gender balance in decision-making and in politics. Some of the specific actions include proposals for gender equality-oriented directives and launching a campaign to challenge gender stereotypes [7].

The Strategy, among other inequalities, points out to the education issues and underlines, based on the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) report, that “while there are more women university graduates in Europe than men graduates, women remain underrepresented in higher paid professions” [1].

It should be emphasized that the Gender Equality Strategy remains a rather new tool in the European toolbox as the global pandemic has shifted the efforts of the key EU institutions to other fields for a solid two years.

2.2 Gender Equality Index

The Gender Equality Index is a product effort of the work of the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), “an independent centre and the primary source for information on gender equality in the European Union” [6]. In addition to the EU member states, the research encompasses among others, six candidate countries (including Bosnia and Hercegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia), and Kosovo.

For the purpose of the paper, the EIGE charts with will be used containing data on the number of women and men in key decision-making positions in the selected field of the domain referred to as “education, science, and research” will be used followed by the selected data in the “judiciary” domain.

figure a

The first chart reflects the men versus women ratios in the position of presidents and members of the highest decision-making body within the national academies of science. The green dots are male positions, and the yellow ones—women. Three general conclusions may be drawn:

  1. 1.

    The male dominance is overwhelming, with just five countries showing the majority of female leaders in the examined positions.

  2. 2.

    An equal or close to equal proportion is observed in another five countries.

  3. 3.

    Of the countries analyzed further in the paper, Bulgaria, Latvia, Bosna and Hercegovina show dominance of women in the examined positions next to Hungary, Croatia and Slovakia with 85% and higher male prevalence.

figure b

The second chart provides numbers of presidents and judges of the supreme courts in the European countries and the general picture is similar to the one above with three comments to be made:

  1. 1.

    The male dominance at the supreme courts is clear but with ten countries appointing more women in those positions.

  2. 2.

    Only one country (France) keeps and almost equal ratio.

  3. 3.

    Of the countries analyzed further in the paper seven (out of total 10) present female dominance at the supreme courts (Latvia, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Montenegro, Serbia and Bosna and Hercegovina) which only partly corresponds to the ration in the first chart (Latvia and Bosna and Hercegovina in both groups of female prevalence and a reverse situation in Hungary and Slovakia).

2.3 She Figures

An extensive data is gathered through the work of the European Commission, namely the Directorate-General for Research and Innovation which puts together a document called “She Figures” (Gender in Research and Innovation Statistics and Indicators) [15]. The latest edition provided data available for 2021 and includes statistics reflecting females.

Some of the key findings revealed in the “She Figures” drop some positive information, like an almost gender parity at the PhD graduate level. It also points to the slight increase in the proportion of women holding the highest academic positions, but still leaving the reader with the fact that the rise is from 24.1 to 26.2%.

The two selected statistical charts refer to women’s participation as researchers in the higher education sector and in decision-making as indicated by the number of heads of institutions in the higher education sector.

figure c

The chart numbers indicate that in 9 countries women constitute over 50% of researchers in the higher education sector. In another 6 countries the proportion is 50% or close to (not less than 48.7%). The average for the 27 EU member states oscillates around 42% which sets a promising start to look for the numbers in the decision-making process.

figure d

The promising start burns quickly after even a brief analysis of the second chart. The European average is set at 23.6% of women in the positions of heads of institutions in higher education. It should be noted that in none of the countries the percentage reaches over 50 in favor of women.

3 Female Law School Deanship in Numbers

This part of the article is devoted to statistical data on the number of women and men occupying the position of deans and vice-deans in law faculties in Central and Eastern European countries. For greater clarity, the analyzed countries have been divided into several groups: (1) Poland, Czechia, Slovakia and Hungary; (2) Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia; (3) Slovenia and Croatia; (4) Bulgaria and Romania; finally states which are not members of the European Union (5) Serbia, Kosovo,  Bosnia and Hercegovina, Montenegro. The presented data has been gathered independently by the authors of the article (using the publicly available data including official web sites of the law faculties) and reflect the numbers as of 4 July 2023.

3.1 Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary

Poland, Czechia, Slovakia and Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and together they formulate the Visegrad Group which among other goals serves also to “preserve and promote cultural cohesion and thus enhances the imparting of values in the field of culture, education, science and exchange of information [2]. The four countries vary in size and population with Poland being the biggest country with population of 37 893 740 (48.2% male versus 51.8% female), population of Czechia reaching 10 726 531 (49.1% male versus 50.8% female), Hungary—9 557 919 (47.5% male versus 52.5% female) and Slovakia—5 472 707 (48.6% male versus 51.4% female) [4]. Those differences reflect the numbers of universities and of the law schools operating within each state as shown in the gathered research (Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5).

Table 1 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public universities in Poland
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Table 2 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at non-public universities in Poland
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Poland has the highest number of institutions providing legal education with as many public schools as private ones. For the purpose of the paper, the selection includes all university public law faculties and a comparable number of private higher education institutions offering law studies programs.

In total, in Poland women in the position of dean of the law faculty account for only 26% (with 9 female main deans), and in the position of vice (associate) dean—45% (accounting for 33 women). A bit over one-quarter of the lead positions is occupied by female professionals, whereas almost half of the deputy positions is taken by female lawyers. The difference is wider and different if the numbers are broken between the public and non-public schools, with a higher percentage of female deans at public law faculties (30%) comparing to non-public law schools (21%). On the other hand, the vice deanship is occupied by women in more non-public schools (57%) than public (40%).

Table 3 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at universities in Czechia
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There are only public law faculties operating in Czechia and all four of them function with a male dean (100%) and 38% of women (total of 8 positions) working as deputy deans.

Table 4 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public and non-public universities in Slovakia
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The situation in Slovakia is only slightly different, as five public law schools are accompanied by one private institution. In the public sector, there is only one law faculty headed by a female dean (20% of the total). The private university law department functions under a female deanship. Overall statistics indicate 67% dominance of male as deans and 55% dominance of female as vice-deans.

Table 5 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public and non-public universities in Hungary
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Out of six public law faculties educating in Hungary, four are run by male deans which constitutes 67% compared to 33% of the female deanship. Two private law schools are headed by men (100%). Women occupy a total of 8 positions of vice-deans (57%) compared to 43% of men in those functions—at public universities. Private schools ratio is 2 (29%) to 5 (71%) favoring male vice deans while overall numbers are: 75% male dominance in the main dean’s offices and 52% male dominance in the vice dean’s offices.

When looking at these countries as a sub-region (Visegrad Group), the numbers clearly show male dominance in the head positions at the law schools at both—non-public and public levels.

Slovakia wins with 33% (one-third) of female deans, followed by Poland showing 26% (a bit over one-fourth) and Hungary 25% (one-fourth). Czechia closes the ranking with 0% of female deans.

The situation is more favorable toward women in the vice-dean numbers. Here the podium belongs to Slovakia with over a half (55%) of women in deputy positions, Hungary showing 48% of female vice-deans next to Poland with 45%. Czechia accounts for 38% of all vice-dean seats assigned to women.

The overall statistics prove that only one-quarter (25%) of the main dean positions are occupied by women in the Visegrad states. The number rises significantly to 44% in the case of vice-deans at these law schools.

3.2 Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia

Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia are grouped together as Baltic States. The population does not differ as much as in the Visegrad group with the highest number in Lithuania—2 579 109 (46.4% male versus 53.6% female) and similar numbers in Latvia—1 814 705 (46% male versus 54% female) and Estonia—1 311 660 (46.7% male versus 53.3% female) [4].

There are only three public universities educating law students in Lithuania accompanied by two non-public entities. Latvia has also three public and four non-public law schools. Estonia provides legal studies only at three public universities. (Tables 6, 7, 8)

Table 6 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public and non-public universities in Lithuania
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Public law faculties in Lithuania have 2 (77%):1 (33%) ratio in terms of the main dean position. Strong female dominance is observed in the vice-deanship sector with 89% (8 positions) held by women. Two private schools are divided fifty-fifty with one male and one female head of law studies. No indication of vice deans is possible due to the specific structure of the schools. Overall numbers show male dominance at 60% level in the main dean’s positions and (based on available data) 89% female dominance in deputy positions.

Table 7 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public and non-public universities in Latvia
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The public deanship ratio in Latvia is the same as in Lithuania with one out of three law faculties run by a female dean (33%). Only two women held deputy positions, but these account for 100% of all vice-deans in Latvia.

It gets much more complicated in terms of non-public universities—usually, there are only heads of the programs with no data about organizational structure in two non-public universities. The only reliable data shows the 60% to 40% dominance of male versus female in the dean’s seats and overall, all 62.5% to 37.5% male dominance when all schools are taken into consideration.

Table 8 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at universities in Estonia
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It should be noted that in Estonia there are no faculties of law, but the internal structure is based on institutes, in one case with law combined with other sciences. The numbers here show equal division: 100% of deans are men and 100% of vice-deans are women.

The Baltic States represent a pattern with more men in the leading positions (main deans) on both—public and non-public levels. Lithuania grants 40% of dean seats to women followed by Latvia with 37.5% and 0% in Estonia. It is interesting to note a high (or total) dominance of women in the vice-dean functions in those countries with 100% of deputy deans positions assigned to women in Latvia and Estonia and 89% in Lithuania.

The combined numbers confirm the pattern with a total of 31% to 69% female to male deanship in all the schools and 93% to 7% female to male vice-deanship at the same schools.

3.3 Slovenia and Croatia

Slovenia (2 090 062 population with 48.9% male versus 51.1% female) and Croatia (4 063 514 population with 48.1% male versus 51.9% female) have been grouped together also in terms of the geographical location and similar numbers of higher education institutions offering law degree programs with just one non-public one operating in Slovenia. (Tables 9, 10)

Table 9 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public and non-public universities in Slovenia
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Two of the public law schools in Slovenia are close to a strict fifty-fifty division in male vs female dean (one versus one which accounts for 50% to 50%) and vice-dean (4 to 3 in favor of men which accounts for 57% and 43%) positions. The only private institution has a male dean and one male, and one female vice-deans. Overall statistics indicate 70% male dominance in main dean’s seats and 55% male dominance in deputy seats.

Table 10 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at universities in Croatia
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The Croatian numbers are more male-dominant in main dean’s seats with three out of four (75%) schools ran by men. The vice-dean positions are more likely occupied by women with a total of 62% female seats.

When put together, there are 5 male and 2 female deans in those countries (and therefore 71% of male dominance). The ratio is different among the total of 25 vice-deans with female domination reaching 56% (14 out of 25 positions).

3.4 Bulgaria and Romania

Bulgaria and Romania are neighbors that together entered the European Union in 2007. The two countries vary in population: Bulgaria has 6 792 904 (48.3% male versus 51.7% female) inhabitants whereas Romania reaches 18 740 266 (48.5% male versus 51.5% female). (Tables 11, 12)

Table 11 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public and non-public universities in Bulgaria
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In Bulgaria, private schools have a fifty-fifty ratio in the main dean’s position and strong female dominance (80%) in vice-dean seats. At public universities male dominance is present in the main dean’s offices (66%) and female dominance is observed in vice dean’s offices (53%).

The total proportions of male versus female main deans position indicate male dominance (62% with a total of 5 seats versus 48% with a total of 3 seats). The dominance prevails with a lower number in the vice-deanship field where a total of 55% (11 seats) are occupied by men leaving the remaining 9 seats to women.

Table 12 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public and non-public universities in Romania
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Romanian deanship landscape at law faculties remains in the male dominance. All the schools main dean’s offices in 63% (12 seats) are taken by men leaving 7 seats (37% to women), but the overall number is due to the more public schools with male deans (77%). At non-public  institutions 4 out of 6 positions (66%) are taken by women. The situation is reversed at combined the vice-deanship level with 17 seats (44.73%) are occupied by men and 21 (55.26%)—by women.

Combined data from both countries confirms that substantial majority of leading positions at the law schools are taken by male deans (73% with total of 27 seats). The 58 vice-dean’s positions are divided almost half to half between 28 seats (48.27%) occupied by men and 30 seats (51.72%)—by women.

3.5 Non-EU countries: Serbia, Kosovo, Bosnia and Hercegovina, Montenegro

The last group of the analyzed countries includes the non-EU states from the Balkan region. All those countries aspire to become members of the European Union and constitute of various population numbers: Serbia (8 604 887 with 49.5% male versus 50.5% female), Kosovo (1 770 759 with 51,5% male versus 48.5% female), Bosna and Hercegovina (3 274 999 with 48.1% male versus 51.9% female) and Montenegro (630 604 with 49.1% male versus 50.9% female). (Tables 13, 14, 15, 16)

Table 13 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at public and non-public universities in Serbia
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Serbia - the biggest country in the group shows male dominance in the main dean’s occupation (75% with 6 seats versus 25% with 2 seats assigned to women). In the vice-deans’ field majority of 54.5% with 12 seats are also taken by men with the remaining 10 seats (45.5%)—by women.

Table 14 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at universities in Kosovo
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Kosovo’s legal education operates mainly within public schools with absolute male dominance in the seat of main dean as well as vice-deans. No female holds any of those positions.

Table 15 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at universities in Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosna and Hercegovina also has exclusively public universities offering law degree. Male dominance in the main dean’s position is lower than in other countries in the region with 57% (4 seats) and a clear female dominance with 64.7% (11 seats) in the vice-dean’s offices.

Table 16 Summary of numbers and percentages of the ratio of men and women serving as deans and vice-deans of law faculties at universities in Montenegro
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Montenegro offers legal education at only one law school with a female dean heading it in 2022/2023 with the support of three male vice-deans.

In two of the Balkan states analyzed for the purpose of the paper, the male dominance in the main dean’s position is clear: 100% in Kosovo and 75% in Serbia. Kosovo has the same dominance in the vice-dean positions where no woman is in such office. Serbia, on the other hand, allows for 62% of female associate deans.

Bosna and Hercegovina stands out, remains a higher number of male (57%) in the dean’s office, and stands out with female dominance in the vice-dean positions (64.7%). Montenegro’s only law faculty is run by a female dean which gives the country 100% female deans. At the same time, there are three male vice deans also accounting for 100%.

4 Conclusions

Overall statistics of male and female deans and vice-deans at all universities in the analyzed countries.

 

Country

M deans (%)

F deans (%)

M vice-deans (%)

F vice-deans (%)

1

Poland

74

26

55

45

2

Czechia

100

0

62

38

3

Slovakia

67

33

45

55

4

Hungary

75

25

52

48

5

Lithuania

60

40

11

89

6

Latvia

62.5

37.5

0

100

7

Estonia

100

0

0

100

8

Slovenia

70

30

55

45

9

Croatia

75

25

38

62

10

Bulgaria

62

38

55

45

11

Romania

63

37

44,73

55.26

12

Serbia

75

25

54,5

45.5

13

Kosovo

100

0

100

0

14

Bosna and Hercegovina

57

43

35.3

64.7

15

Montenegro

0

100

100

0

Statistics relating to the number of women in the position of deans of law faculties in Central and Eastern European countries clearly indicate a strong dominance of men in those seats. The situation is different in favor of women in the vice-dean’s seats.

Several specific observations can be further drawn from the collected data.

In 3 out of fifteen countries, there is no woman in the main dean seat at the law school (Czechia, Estonia, and Kosovo). The 100% dominance of women in the main dean’s position exists only in one country (Montenegro), but it is also the only law school there. In as many as fourteen out of fifteen countries, 50% or more main dean’s positions are taken by men. In fact, only in one country (Bosnia and Hercegovina) the number is below 60%. In 7 out of fifteen countries female dominance is observed in the vice-deans’ offices with 50% or more seats taken by women. Vice-deans’ positions are clearly more frequently occupied by female employees. Kosovo is the only state with absolute male dominance in all managerial positions within the law schools operating in the country.

Our research data is based on the numbers gathered from publicly available sources and is accurate for the 2022/2023 academic year. A long-term historical survey could result in different numbers and conclusions and such research should be done as the next step. It is also valuable to direct readers to other studies in the field, especially using different methods as Katz et al. did for long-term studies on U.S. law schools [11]. Gender equity in academia in the Central and Eastern European Countries has been the subject of the new empirical research based on semi-structured interviews which revealed several fields where female academic stress discrimination in some other spheres, such as administrative work at the universities. The study showed a unanimous agreement that women spend more time on administrative work than on performing the core of their work, teaching and research [8].

The initial hypothesis for the paper is verified and leaves the readers with even more questions. There is a lot to be done to eliminate the striking inequalities in the management positions within the law schools, a different research should be conducted on the best possible instruments to be implemented on that road. As Padilla rightly points out, “Women’s journeys to deanships and their experiences in deanships have many similarities, from sometimes rocky paths to glass cliffs” [14] no matter the continent or country.