Abstract
Can Tho City is experiencing water stress driven by rapid global changes. This study assesses the spatiotemporal variation in surface water quality (SWQ) through a multivariate statistical approach to provide evidence-based scientific information supporting sustainable water resource management and contributing to achieving the city’s sustainable development goals (SDGs). The complex SWQ dataset with 14 monthly-measured parameters at 73 sampling sites throughout the city was collected and analyzed. The obtained results indicated that average concentrations of biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), total coliform, turbidity, total suspended solids, and phosphate (PO43−) exceeded the permissible national levels. Spatially, cluster analysis had divided the city’s river basin into three different zones (mixed urban-industrial, agricultural, and mixed urban–rural zones). The key sources of SWQ pollution in these three zones were individually identified by principal component/factor analysis (PCA/FA), which were mainly related to domestic wastewater, industrial effluents, farming runoff, soil erosion, upstream sediment flows, and severe droughts. Discriminant analysis also explored that COD, DO, turbidity, nitrate (NO3−), and PO43− were the key parameters discriminating SWQ in the city among seasons and land-use zones. The temporally analyzed results from weighted arithmetic water quality index (WAWQI) estimation revealed the deterioration of SWQ conditions, whereby the total polluted monitoring sites of the city increased from 29% in 2013 to 51% in 2019. The key drivers of this deterioration were the expansion in built-up and industrial land areas, farming runoff, and droughts.
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Data availability
The authors confirm that the secondary dataset supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials. The primary dataset that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. This primary dataset are not publicly available due to restrictions (e.g., the most of the primary dataset is related to the case study’s development policies and master plans, and it belongs to the cities’ governmental organizations).
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Acknowledgements
The authors are highly thankful to the People Committee (PC), Department of Natural Resources and Environment (DONRE), Department of Construction (DOC), Central Statistics Office (CSO) of Can Tho City for providing valuable datasets and documents to pursue this study. The authors are also indebted to the Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Tokyo, Graduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University and Japan International Cooperation Center (JICE) for facilitating the necessary logistic support and scholarship for this study.
Funding
This research was partially funded by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (S-15 “Predicting and Assessing Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services” (PANCES) JPMEERF16S11510, Ministry of the Environment, Japan, and Deanship of Scientific Research at King Khalid University through the large research groups under grant number RGP. 2/173/42.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
See Figs.
The average monthly rainfall and Hau River water level in the city for the period of 2013–2019
15,
The change of agglomeration coefficient values during the stages of the spatial and seasonal CA processes. The clustering was ideally stopped after the 69th (for spatial CA) and 9th (for seasonal CA) stages that showed the first noticeable increase in coefficient values of 26.67 and 9.60, respectively. Therefore, the optimal number of spatial and seasonal clusters was three (72nd stage–69th stage = 3) and two (11th stage–9th stage = 2), respectively
16 and
The scree plots showing eigenvalues (> 1) for Clusters 1 (a), 2 (b), and 3 (c)
17.
Appendix 2
See Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
11 and
12.
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Duc, N.H., Kumar, P., Lan, P.P. et al. Hydrochemical indices as a proxy for assessing land-use impacts on water resources: a sustainable management perspective and case study of Can Tho City, Vietnam. Nat Hazards 117, 2573–2615 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-05957-4
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-05957-4