Abstract
This article proposes a new measurement instrument of trauma-related shame. The purpose of this study is to investigate the psychometric properties of the scores derived from the Trauma Related Shame Inventory (TRSI) by means of generalizability theory (G-theory). The psychometric analyses are based on a sample of 50 patients in treatment for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The results provided supporting construct validity evidence for the interpretation of TRSI as a homogeneous construct. The 24-item version of internal and external referenced shame yielded generalizability and dependability coefficients of .874 and .868, respectively. The distinction between shame and guilt was supported by a high generalizability coefficient of .812 for the difference scores between TRSI and guilt cognition scale. Further validity evidence was provided by a positive relationship between TRSI and a) self-judgment subscale in Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff Self and Identity 2:(3), 223–250, 2003) and b) Beck Depression Inventory (Beck Steer and Brown 1996a) when controlled for guilt. The results of the present study provided promising support for using the 24-item version of TRSI in both clinical research and practice.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andrews, B., Qian, M., & Valentine, J. (2002). Predicting depressive symptoms with a new measure of shame: the experience of shame scale. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 29–42.
Arntz, A., Tiesema, M., Kindt, M. (2007). Treatment of PTSD: a comparison of imaginal exposure with and without imagery rescripting. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychology, 38(4), 345–370.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996a). Manual for beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio: Psychological Corporation.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. (1996b). Comparison of beck depression inventories IA and II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 588–597.
Beck, J. G., McNiff, J., Clapp, J. D., Olsen, S. A., Avery, M. L., & Hagewood, J. H. (2011). Exploring negative emotion in women experiencing intimate partner violence: shame, guilt, and PTSD. Behavioral Therapy, 42, 740–750.
Benson, J., & Hagtvet, K. A. (1996). The interplay among design, data analysis and theory in the measurement of coping. In S. Norman, Endler, & Z. Moshe (Eds.), Handbook of coping: Theory, research, applications (Vol. 5, pp. 83–106). New York: Wiley.
Blatt, S. J., D’Afflitti, J., & Quinlan, D. (1976). Experiences of depression in young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 65, 383–389.
Blum, A. (2008). Shame and guilt, misconceptions and controversies: a critical review of the literature. Traumatology, 14, 91–102.
Brennan, R. L. (1983). Elements of generalizability theory. Iowa City: American College Testing.
Brennan, R. L. (1992a). Generalizability theory. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 11, 225–232.
Brennan, R. L. (1992b). Elements of generalizability theory. Iowa City: ACT.
Brennan, R. L. (1994). Variance Components in Generalizability Theory. In R. R. Cecil (Ed.), Cognititive assessment – a multidisciplinary perspective (pp. 175–206). New York: Plenum Press.
Brennan, R. L. (1999). Manual for mGENOVA. Iowa testing programs occasional papers number 47.
Brennan, R. L. (2001a). Manual for urGENOVA. Iowa City: Iowa Testing Programs, University of Iowa.
Brennan, R. L. (2001b). Generalizability theory. New York: Springer.
Brennan, R. L. (2003). Coefficients and Indices in Generalizability Theory. Center for Advanced Studies in Measurement and Assessment, CASMA Research Report, 1, 1–44.
Brennan, R. L. (2010). Generalizability theory and classical test theory. Applied Measurement in Education, 24, 1–21.
Brennan, R. L., Gao, X., & Colton, D. A. (1995). Generalizability analyses of work keys listening and writing tests. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55(2), 157–176.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670–686.
Cook, D. R. (1988). Measuring shame: the internalized shame scale. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 4, 197–215.
Cook, D. R. (1989). Internalized Shame Scale (ISS). Stout: University of Wisconsin.
Cook, D. R. (1991). Shame, attachment and addictions: implications for family therapists. Contemporary Family Therapy, 13, 405–419.
Cook, D. R. (1993). The internalized shame scale manual. Channel Press, Menomonie, WI (Available from author; Rt. 7, Box 270a, Menomonie, WI 54751, U.S.A.).
Cronbach, L. J., & Shavelson, R. J. (2004). My current thoughts on coefficient alpha and successor procedures. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64, 391–418.
Cronbach, L. J., Gleser, G. C., Nanda, H., & Rajaratnam, N. (1972). The dependability of behavioral measurements: Theory of generalizability for scores and profiles. New York: Wiley.
DePrince, A. P., Zurbriggen, E., Chu, A. T., & Smart, L. (2010). Development of the Trauma Appraisal Questionnaire. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 19, 275–299.
Donders, J. (1997). Using a short form of the WISC-III: sinful or Smart? Child Neuropsychology, 7, 99–103.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavioral Research Therapy, 38, 319–345.
Eikeland, H.-M. (1973). Generalizability estimates for differenece scores: An aspect of the construct validity of tests. Departmental Research Report, University of Oslo. https://bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/4803/Generalizability.pdf
Feldt, L. S., Brennan, R. L. (1989). Reliability. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational Measurement (3rd ed) (pp. 105–146).
Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., Dancu, C. V., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1993). Reliability and validity of a brief instrument for assessing post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6, 459–474.
Gilbert, P. (1997). The evolution of social attractiveness and its role in shame, humiliation, guilt and therapy. British Journal of Medicational Pscychology, 70, 113–147.
Gilbert, P. (2000). The relationship of shame, social anxiety and depression: the Role of the evaluation of social rank. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 7, 174–189.
Gilbert, P., & Andrews, B. (1998). Shame: Interpersonal behavior, psychopathology, and culture (pp. 99–125). New York: Oxford University Press.
Gilbert, P., & Miles, J. N. V. (2000). Sensitivity to putdown: its relationship to perceptions of shame, social anxiety, depression, anger and self–other blame. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 757–774.
Gilbert, P., & Procter, S. (2006). Compassionate mind training for people with high shame and self-criticism: Pilot study of a group therapy approach. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 13, 353–379.
Greenberg, L. S., & Paivio, S. C. (1997). Working with the emotions in psychotherapy. New York: Guilford.
Grunert, B. K., Smucker, M. R., Weis, J., & Rusch, M. D. (2003). When prolonged exposure fails: adding an imagery-based cognitive restructuring component in the treatment of industrial accident victims suffering from PTSD. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 10(4), 333–346.
Grunert, B. K., Weis, J. M., Smucker, M. R., & Christianson, H. F. (2007). Imagery rescripting and reprocessing therapy after failed prolonged imaginal exposure for post-traumatic stress disorder following industrial injury. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38, 317–328.
Harman, R., & Lee, D. (2010). The role of shame and self-critical thinking in the development and maintenance of current threat in post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 17, 13–24.
Holmes, E. A., Grey, N., & Young, K. A. D. (2005). Intrusive images and “hotspots” of trauma memories in posttraumatic stress disorder: an exploratory investigation of emotions and cognitive themes. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 36(1), 3–17.
Kane, M. T. (1982). A sampling model for validity. Applied Psychological Measurement, 6, 125–160.
Kane, M. T. (2001). Current concerns in validity theory. Journal of Educational Measurement, 38, 319–342.
Kubany, E. S., & Manke, F. P. (1995). Cognitive therapy for trauma-related guilt: conceptual bases and treatment outlines. Cognitive and Behavioural Practice, 2, 27–61.
Kubany, E. S., & Watson, S. B. (2003). Guilt: elaboration of a multidimensional model. Psychological Record, 53, 51–90.
Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Abueg, F. R., Manke, F. P., Brennan, J. M., & Stahura, C. (1996). Development and Validation of the Trauma-Related Guilt Inventory (TRGI). Psychological Assessment, 8, 428–444.
Lee, D. A. (2005). The perfect nurturer: A model to develop a compassionate mind within the context of cognitive therapy. In P. Gilbert (Ed.), Compassion: Conceptualisations, research and use in psychotherapy (pp. 326–351). Hove, UK: Routledge.
Lee, D. A., Scragg, P., & Turner, S. (2001). The role of shame and guilt in traumatic events: a clinical model of shame-based and guilt-based PTSD. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74, 451–466.
Leskela, J., Dieperink, M., & Thuras, P. (2002). Shame and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 223–226.
Lewis, H. B. (1971). Shame and guilt in neurosis. Psychoanalytic Review, 58, 419–438.
Lewis, M. (1995). Shame–the exposed self. New York: The Free Press.
Lindsay-Hartz, J. (1984). Contrasting experiences of shame and guilt. American Behavioral Scientist, 27, 689–704.
Macdonald, J., & Morley, I. (2001). Shame and non-disclosure: a study of the emotional isolation of people referred to psychotherapy. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74, 1–21.
Martens, W. (2005). A multicomponential model of shame. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 35, 399–415.
Matos, M., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2010). Shame as a traumatic memory. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 17, 299–312.
Messick. (1995). Standards of validity and the validity of standards in performance asessment. Educational Measurement Issues and Practice, 14, 5–8.
Nathanson, D. L. (1987). The many faces of shame. New York: The Guilford Press.
Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Orth, U., Berking, M., & Burkhardt, S. (2006). Selfconscious emotions and depression: rumination explains why shame but not guilt is maladaptive. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1608–1619.
Platt, M., & Freyd, J. (2012). Trauma and negative underlying assumptions in feelings of shame: anexploratory study. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy, 4, 370–378.
Power, M., & Dalgleish, T. (2008). Cognition and Emotion – From Order to Disorder, second edition. Psychology Press.
Resick, P. A, & Schnicke, M. K. (1992). Cognitive processing therapy for sexual assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(5), 748–56.
Resick, P. A., & Schnicke, M. K. (1993). Cognitive processing for rape victims. Newbury Park: Sage.
Resick, P. A., Galovski, T. E., O’Brien Uhlmansiek, M., Scher, C. D., Clum, G. A., & Young-Xu, Y. (2008). A randomized clinical trial to dismantle components of cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of interpersonal violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 243–258.
Santor, D. A., & Coyne, J. C. (1997). Shortening the CES–D to improve its ability to detect cases of depression. Psychological Assessment, 9, 233–243.
Semb, O., Strömsten, L. M., Sundbom, E., Fransson, P., & Henningsson, M. (2011). Distress after a single violent crime: how shame-proneness and event-related shame work together as risk factors for post-victimization symptoms. Psychological Reports, 09, 3–23.
Shavelson, R. J., & Webb, N. M. (1991). Generalizability theory: A primer. Newbury Park: Sage.
Shavelson, R. J., Webb, N. M., & Rowley, G. L. (1989). Generalizability theory. American Psychologist, 44(6), 922–932.
Shrout, P. E., & Fleiss, J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 2, 420–428.
Smith, G. T., McCarthy, D. M., & Anderson, K. G. (2000). On the sins of short-form development. Psychological Assessment, 12, 102–111.
Smith, E. R., Duax, J. M., & Rauch, S. A. M. (2013). Perceived perpetration during traumatic events: clinical suggestions from experts in prolonged exposure therapy. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 20, 461–470.
Smucker, M. R., Grunert, B. K., & Weis, J. (2003). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A New Algorithm Treatment Model. In R. L. Leahy (Ed.), Overcoming roadblocks in cognitive therapy practice (pp. 175–194). New York: Guilford Publications.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). STAI manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Steenkamp, M., Nash, W. P., Lebowitz, L., & Litz, B. T. (2013). How best to treat deployment-related guilt and shame: commentary on Smith, Duax, and Rauch (2013). Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 20, 471–475.
Stone, A. M. (1992). The role of shame in post-traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Orthopsychiathry, 62, 131–136.
Street, A. E., & Arias, I. (2001). Psychological abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder in battered women. Examining the role of shame and guilt. Violence and Victims, 16, 65–78.
Tangney, J. P. (1991). Moral affect: the good, the bad and the ugly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 598–607.
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2003). Shame & Guilt. New York: The Guilford Press.
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, R., & Gramzov, R. (1989). The test of self-conscious affect. Fairfax: George Mason University.
Tangney, J. P., Miller, R. S., Flicker, L., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Are shame, guilt and embarrassment distinct emotions? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1256–1269.
Tomkins, S. (1987). Shame. In D. L. Nathanson (Ed.), The many faces of shame (pp. 133–161). New York: The Guilford Press.
Wicker, F. W., Payne, G. C., & Morgan, R. D. (1983). Participant description of shame and guilt. Motivation and Emotion, 7, 25–39.
Wilson, J. P., Drozdek, B., & Turkovic, S. (2006). Posttraumatic shame and guilt. Trauma Violence and Abuse, 7, 122–141.
Wong, M. R., & Cook, D. (1992). Shame and its contribution to PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 557–562.
Conflict of Interest
There are no conflicts involved in the present study.
Experiment Participants
The study was approved by the Regional Ethics Committee and the patients gave informed consent after the procedure had been fully explained.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Øktedalen, T., Hagtvet, K.A., Hoffart, A. et al. The Trauma Related Shame Inventory: Measuring Trauma-Related Shame Among Patients with PTSD. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 36, 600–615 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9422-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9422-5