Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Gender Bias in Parental Leave: Evidence from Sweden

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Family and Economic Issues Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper estimates the effect of child gender on mothers’ and fathers’ parental leave using population-wide register data from Statistics Sweden and the Swedish Social Insurance Agency. The results showed that a first-born son increased fathers’ parental leave with 0.6 days (1.5 %) and decreased mothers’ leave by a similar amount. Both the sign and size of this effect is in line with previous research, showing that these types of biases exist also in a society with top ratings on gender equality. However, non-traditional families, with high maternal relative earnings and/or educational levels, showed even larger gender biases which suggest that it may be mothers, rather than fathers, that are the driving force behind this child gender bias.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Longitudinal integration database for health insurance and labour market studies.

  2. Among immigrants, there are missing information primarily on educational levels for around 20 % of all individuals.

  3. Note that this does not imply a structural model; we still estimate a reduced form.

  4. Although we can note that ultrasound tests, the method used by most women for examining the child during pregnancy, is not completely reliable in determining child gender.

  5. In fact, heterogeneous effects estimates for different groups of maternal and paternal educational levels showed no statistically significant differences in gender bias at all. Focusing on earnings levels, there were no differences between different groups of paternal earnings, but among mothers, there was a concave pattern showing that the gender bias against sons diminished by income (high income mothers were less gender biased) but at a decreasing rate.

  6. Longitudinal Individual Data for Sweden. For a more detailed description of the LINDA database, see Edin and Fredriksson (2000).

  7. In contrast to ordinary parental leave, where a parent on leave typically takes care of all children in the family because child care access is partly restricted for children whose parents are on ordinary parental leave; see The Swedish National Agency for Education (2001).

  8. In contrast to ordinary parental leave, which is given as a fixed amount of days for each child, the number of temporary parental leave days depends on the sickness of the child.

References

  • Almond, D., & Edlund, L. (2007). Trivers–Willard at birth and one year. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 274(1624), 2491–2496. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0524.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, G., Hank, K., Rönsen, M., & Vikat, A. (2004). Gendering the family composition: Sex preferences for children and childbearing behavior in the Nordic countries. Demography, 43(2), 255–267. doi:10.1353/dem.2006.0010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arends-Kuenning, M., & Duryea, S. (2006). The effect of parental presence, parents’ education, and household headship on adolescents’ schooling and work in Latin America. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 27(2), 263–286. doi:10.1007/s10834-006-9011-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Averett, S. L., Gennetian, L. A., & Peters, H. E. (2005). Paternal child care and children’s development. Journal of Population Economics, 19(3), 391–414. doi:10.1007/s00148-004-0203-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Batljan, I., Tillander, S., Örnhall Ljung, S., & Sjöström, M. (2004). Föräldrapenning, pappornas uttag av dagar, fakta och analys. Ministry of Health and Social Affairs (Socialdepartementet).

  • Bennedsen, M., Meisner Nielsen, K., Perez-Gonzalez, F., & Wolfenzon, D. (2007). Inside the family firm: The role of families in succession decisions and performance. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(2), 647–691. doi:10.1162/qjec.122.2.647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, L., & Mokhtari, M. (2011). Parental employment, shared parent–child activities and childhood obesity. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 32(2), 233–244. doi:10.1007/s10834-011-9249-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, L. M., Hill, J., & Waldfogel, J. (2005). Maternity leave, early maternal employment and child health and development in the US. The Economic Journal, 115(501), 29–47. doi:10.1111/j.0013-0133.2005.00971.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernal, R. (2008). The effect of maternal employment and child care on children’s cognitive development. International Economic Review, 49(4), 1173–1209. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2354.2008.00510.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, F. D., & Grossberg, A. J. (1992). Maternal labor supply and children’s cognitive development. Review of Economics and Statistics, 74, 474–481. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2109492.

  • Cagnacci, A., Renzi, A., Arangino, S., Alessandrini, C., & Volpe, A. (2004). Influences of maternal weight on the secondary sex ratio of human offspring. Human Reproduction, 19(2), 442–444. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh071.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R., Bruckner, T., Gould, J., Eskenazi, B., & Anderson, E. (2005a). Sex ratios in California following the terrorist attacks of September 11 2001. Human Reproduction, 20(5), 1221–1227. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh763.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R., Bruckner, T., Anderson, E., & Gould, J. (2005b). Fetal death sex ratios: A test of the economic stress hypothesis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 34(4), 944–948. doi:10.1093/ije/dyi081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chahnazarian, A. (1988). Determinants of the sex ratio at birth: Review of recent literature. Social Biology, Fall-Winter 1988, 214–235. doi:10.1080/19485565.1988.9988703.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chun, H., & Oh, J. (2002). An instrumental variable estimate of the effect of fertility on the labour force participation of married women. Applied Economics Letters, 9(10), 631–634. doi:10.1080/13504850110117850.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coltrane, S. (2000). Research on household labor: Modeling and measuring the social embeddedness of routine family work. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62(4), 1208–1233. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01208.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke, L. P. (2004). The gendered division of labor and family outcomes in Germany. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 66(5), 1246–1259. doi:10.1111/j.0022-2445.2004.00090.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, D. (2007). Biological basics and the economics of the family. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21(2), 91–108. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30033719.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunha, F., & Heckman, J. (2007). The technology of skill formation. American Economic Review, 97(2), 31–47. doi:10.1257/aer.97.2.31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, G. B., & Moretti, E. (2008). The demand for sons. Review of Economic Studies, 75(4), 1085–1120. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20185072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, S. (2011). What motivates gifts? Intra-family transfers in rural Malawi. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 32(3), 473–492. doi:10.1007/s10834-010-9216-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Desai, S., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Michael, R. T. (1989). Mother or market? Effects of maternal employment on the intellectual ability of 4-year old children. Demography, 26(4), 545–561. doi:10.2307/2061257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doyle, O., Harmon, C. P., Heckman, J. J., & Tremblay, R. E. (2009). Investing in early human development: Timing and economic efficiency. Economics and Human Biology, 7(1), 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2009.01.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edin, P.-A., & Fredriksson, P. (2000). Linda—longitudinal individual data for Sweden, Working Paper 2000:19, Department of Economics, Uppsala University.

  • Encarta (2011). Retrieved March 2011, from http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_701706243/gender_bias.html.

  • Encyclopaedia Britannica (2011). Retrieved March 2011, from http://www.britannica.com/bps/dictionary?query=bias.

  • Feyrer, J., Sacerdote, B., & Stern, A. D. (2008). Will the stork return to Europe and Japan? Understanding fertility within developed nations. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(3), 3–22. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27648258.

  • Guryan, J., Hurst, E., & Kearney, M. (2008). Parental education and parental time with children. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 22(3), 23–46. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27648259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Han, W.-J., Ruhm, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2009). Parental leave policies and parents’ employment and leave-taking. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 28(1), 29–54. doi:10.1002/pam.20398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsson, M., Aneblom, G., Odlind, V., & Tydén, T. (2002). Reasons for pregnancy termination, contraceptive habits and contraceptive failure among Swedish women requesting an early pregnancy termination. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavia, 81(1), 64–71. doi:10.1046/j.0001-6349.2001.00169.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. H. (2011). The one-child policy and gender equality in education in China: Evidence from household data. Journal of Family and Economic Issues,. doi:10.1007/s10834-011-9277-9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, S. (2005a). Sons, daughters, and parental behaviour. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 21(3), 340–356. doi:10.1093/oxrep/gri020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, S. (2005b). The division of labor by new parents: Does child gender matter? Discussion Paper no. 1787, Institute for the Study of Labor, Bonn. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://ssrn.com/abstract=826445.

  • Lundberg, S., McLanahan, S., & Rose, E. (2007). Child gender and father involvement in fragile families. Demography, 44(1), 79–92. doi:10.1353/dem.2007.0007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maume, D. J. (2011). Reconsidering the temporal increase in fathers’ time with children. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 32(3), 411–423. doi:10.1007/s10834-010-9227-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monna, B., & Gauthier, A. H. (2008). A review of the literature on the social and economic determinants of parental time. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 29(4), 634–653. doi:10.1007/s10834-008-9121-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson, K. (2008). Jämställdhet, barnafödande och separationer. In A. Grönlund & B. Halleröd (Eds.), Jämställdhetens pris. Umeå: Borea.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oláh, L. S.-Z. (2003). Gendering fertility: Second births in Sweden and Hungary. Population Research and Policy Review, 22(2), 171–200. doi:10.1023/A:1025089031871.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parcel, T. L., & Menaghan, E. (1994). Early parental work, family social capital and early childhood outcomes. American Journal of Sociology, 99(4), 972–1009. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2781737.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry-Jenkins, M., & Gillman, S. (2000). Parental job experiences and children’s well-being: The case of two-parent and single-mother working-class families. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 21(2), 123–147. doi:10.1023/A:1009473918629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pronzato, C. D. (2009). Return to work after childbirth: Does parental leave matter in Europe? Review of Economics of the Household, 7(4), 341–360. doi:10.1007/s11150-009-9059-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, R., Gornick, J. C., & Schmitt, J. (2008). Parental leave policies in 28 countries. Assessing generosity and gender equality. Report, Center for Economic and Policy Research, Washington.

  • Ruhm, C. J. (2000). Parental leave and child health. Journal of Health Economics, 19(6), 931–960. doi:10.1016/S0167-6296(00)00047-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruhm, C. J. (2004). Parental employment and child cognitive development. Journal of Human Resources, 39(1), 155–192. doi:10.3368/jhr.XXXIX.1.155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, S. (2005). Parental leave and child health across OECD countries. The Economic Journal, 115(501), 7–28. doi:10.1111/j.0013-0133.2005.00970.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The National Board of Health and Welfare (2002). Fakta om mammor, förlossningar och nyfödda barn. Report no. 2002:125:12.

  • The National Board of Health and Welfare (2006). Aborter 2005. Statistik, Hälsa och sjukdomar 2006:2.

  • The Swedish Consumer Agency (2001). Barn kostar. Räcker familjernas pengar? En jämförelse mellan olika normer., Report no 2001:3.

  • The Swedish National Agency for Education (2001). Plats utan oskäligt dröjsmål. Report no 2001:1944.

  • The Swedish Social Insurance Agency (2004a). Flexibel föräldrapenning—hur mammor och pappor använder föräldraförsäkringen och hur länge de är föräldralediga. Report no. 2004:14.

  • The Swedish Social Insurance Agency (2004b). Föräldrapenningen—en översikt för åren 1974–2003. Statistikinformation Is-l:2004:4.

  • The Swedish Social Insurance Agency (2005). Socialförsäkringstaket och föräldralön—ekonomi vid föräldraledighet. Report no. 2005:7.

  • Thomas, D. (1994). Like father, like son; like mother, like daughter: Parental resources and child height. The Journal of Human Resources, 29(4), 950–988. Retrieved May 27, 2012, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/146131.

  • Torr, B. M., & Short, S. E. (2004). Second births and the second shift: A research note on gender equity and fertility. Population and Development Review, 30(1), 109–130. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2004.00005.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trivers, R. L., & Willard, D. E. (1973). Natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex-ratio of offspring. Science, 179(4068), 90–92. doi:10.1126/science.179.4068.90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations. (1995). Human development report 1995: Gender and human development. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C. (2010). Daughter exclusion in family business succession: A review of the literature. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 31(4), 475–484. doi:10.1007/s10834-010-9230-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, J. C. K. (2000). Natural selection and sex differences in morbidity and mortality in early life. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 202(1), 65–76. doi:10.1006/jtbi.1999.1044.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • You, W., & Davis, G. C. (2011). Childhood overweight: Does quality of parental childcare time matter? Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 32(2), 219–232. doi:10.1007/s10834-011-9245-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Peter Fredriksson and Per Johansson for valuable guidance. I would also like to thank Mikael Elinder, Jenny von Greiff, Håkan Selin, Nabanita Datta Gupta, Peter Skogman Thoursie and Björn Öckert, seminar participants at the Department of Economics, Uppsala University, and the anonymous referees, for important suggestions and comments. The financial support from the Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research, FAS (dnr 2004-1222) is also acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Uppsala Center for Labor Studies, Uppsala University, Box 513, SE-751 20, Uppsala, Sweden

    Elly-Ann Lindström

Authors
  1. Elly-Ann Lindström
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elly-Ann Lindström.

Appendix

Appendix

See Tables 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.

Table 8 Number and share of newly born boys and girls in Sweden 1973–2005
Full size table
Table 9 The probability of and days on parental leave
Full size table
Table 10 Medical differences between newly born boys and girls in Sweden, averages during 1973–2005
Full size table
Table 11 Parents mean number of days on temporary parental leave for boys and girls
Full size table
Table 12 Details of the parental leave benefits over the years
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lindström, EA. Gender Bias in Parental Leave: Evidence from Sweden. J Fam Econ Iss 34, 235–248 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-012-9324-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-012-9324-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation