Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Early African America: Archaeological Studies of Significance and Diversity

  • Published:
Journal of Archaeological Research Aims and scope

Abstract

This article examines archaeological studies of the cultural heritage and social dynamics of African descendant populations in the United States and Canada from AD 1400 through 1865. European colonial enterprises expanded in Africa and the Americas during that time span, effecting an accompanying movement of free and captive Africans into North America. Archaeological investigations of early African America are remarkable for the diversity of analytic scales and research questions pursued. This diversity of research efforts has yielded a highly productive, interdisciplinary expansion of knowledge concerning African diaspora histories.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References cited

  • Agbe-Davies, A. S. (2004a). Up in Smoke: Pipe-making, Smoking, and Bacon’s Rebellion, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

  • Agbe-Davies, A. S. (2004b). The production and consumption of smoking pipes along the tobacco coast. In Rafferty, S., and Mann, R. (eds.), Smoking Culture: The Archaeology of Tobacco Pipes in Eastern North America, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 273–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agbe-Davies, A. S. (2007). Practicing African American archaeology in the Atlantic world. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 413–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agorsah, A. K. (ed.) (1994). Maroon Heritage: Archaeological, Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives, Canoe Press, Barbados.

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong, D. V. (2008). Excavating African American heritage: Towards a more nuanced understanding of the African diaspora. Historical Archaeology 42(2): 123–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babson, D. W. (1990). The archaeology of racism and ethnicity on southern plantations. Historical Archaeology 24(4): 20–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barile, K. S., and Brandon, J. C. (eds.) (2004). Household Chores and Household Choices: Theorizing the Domestic Sphere in Historical Archaeology, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker, D., and Majewski, T. (2006). Ceramic studies in historical archaeology. In Hicks, D., and Beaudry, M. C. (eds.), Cambridge Companion to Historical Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 205–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battle-Baptiste, W. (2007). “In this here place”: Interpreting enslaved homeplaces. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 233–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaudry, M. C. (2008). Not presentism but honesty: Symposium and lecture series at Boston University commemorates the 200th anniversary of the ending of the US-Atlantic slave trade. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter June. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0608/news0608.html#7, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Beaudry, M. C., and Berkland, E. P. (2007). Archaeology of the African meeting house on Nantucket. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 395–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergad, L. W. (2007). The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States, Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, I. (2003). Generations of Captivity: A History of African-American Slaves, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, I., and Morgan, P. D. (1993). Labor and the shaping of slave life in the Americas. In Berlin, I., and Morgan, P. D. (eds.), Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the Shaping of Black Life in the Americas, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 1–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blakey, M. L. (2001). Bioarchaeology of the African diaspora in the Americas: Its origin and scope. Annual Review of Anthropology 30: 387–422.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blakey, M. L. (2004). Theory: An ethical epistemology of publicly engaged biocultural research. In Blakey, M. L., and Rankin-Hill, L. M. (eds.), New York African Burial Ground Skeletal Biology Final Report, Volume I, Howard University, Washington, DC, pp. 98–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blakey, M. L., and Rankin-Hill, L. M. (eds.) (2006). New York African Burial Ground Skeletal Biology Final Report, Volume I, Howard University, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blight, D. W. (ed.) (2004). Passages to Freedom: The Underground Railroad in History and Memory, Smithsonian Books, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, J. (1996). Foodways in the 18th-century Chesapeake. In Reinhart, T. R. (ed.), The Archaeology of 18th-Century Virginia, Spectrum Press, Richmond, VA, pp. 87–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandon, J. C. (2008). Disparate diasporas and vindicationist archaeologies: Some comments on excavating America’s metaphor. Historical Archaeology 42(2): 147–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. L. (2001). Interwoven traditions: Archaeology at the conjurer’s cabins and African American cemetery at the Jordan and Frogmore plantations. In Places of Cultural Memory: African Reflections on the American Landscape, National Park Service, Washington, DC, pp. 99–114.

  • Brown, K. L. (2004). Ethnographic analogy, archaeology, and the African diaspora: Perspectives from a tenant community. Historical Archaeology 38(1): 79–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. L., and Cooper, D. C. (1990). Structural continuity in an African-American slave and tenant community. Historical Archaeology 24(4): 7–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butler, J. (1990). Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabak, M. A., Groover, M. D., and Wagers, S. J. (1995). Health care and the Wayman A.M.E. Church. Historical Archaeology 29(2): 55–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carson, C., Barka, N. F., Kelso, W. M., Stone, G. W., and Upton, D. (1981). Impermanent architecture in the southern American colonies. Winterthur Portfolio 16: 135–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan, A. A. (2007). Slavery in the Age of Reason: Archaeology at a New England Farm, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coplin, J., and Matthews, C. (2007). The archaeology of captivity and freedom at Joseph Lloyd Manor. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter December. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news1207/news1207.html#3, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Coughtry, J. (1981). The Notorious Triangle: Rhode Island and the African Slave Trade, 1700–1807, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crader, D. C. (1984). The zooarchaeology of the storehouse and the dry well at Monticello. American Antiquity 49: 542–558.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crane, B. (1993). Colono Wares and Criollo Ware Pottery from Charleston, South Carolina and San Juan, Puerto Rico in Comparative Perspective, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of American Civilization, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

  • Crist, T. A., Roberts, D. G., Pitts, R. H., McCarthy, J. P., and Parrington, M. (1997). The First African Baptist Church cemeteries: African-American mortality and trauma in antebellum Philadelphia. In Poirier, D. A., and Bellantoni, N. F. (eds.), In Remembrance: Archaeology and Death, Bergin & Garvey, Westport, CT, pp. 19–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtin, P. D. (1969). The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey, P. (ed.) (1979). The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe, Vol. II, the United States of America, BAR International Series 60, Archaeopress, Oxford, UK.

  • Davey, P., and Pogue, D. J. (eds.) (1991). The Archaeology of the Clay Tobacco Pipe, Vol. XII, Chesapeake Bay, BAR International Series 566, Archaeopress, Oxford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • David, N., Sterner, J., and Gavua, K. (1988). Why pots are decorated. Current Anthropology 29: 365–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, D. B. (2006). Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deagan, K., and MacMahon, D. (1995). Fort Mose: Colonial America’s Black Fortress of Freedom, University Press of Florida, Gainesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deetz, J. (1987). Scientific humanism and humanistic science: A plea for paradigmatic pluralism in historical archaeology. In Ingersoll, D. W., and Bronitsky, G. (eds.), Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Constructions of Reality, University Press of America, Lanham, MD, pp. 367–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deetz, J. (1993). Flowerdew Hundred: The Archaeology of a Virginia Plantation, 1619–1864, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deetz, J. (1996). In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life, rev. ed., Anchor Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delle, J. A. (2008). A tale of two tunnels: Memory, archaeology, and the underground railroad. Journal of Social Archaeology 8: 63–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delle, J. A., and Levine, M. A. (2004). Excavations at the Thaddeus Stevens/Lydia Hamilton Smith site, Lancaster, PA: Archaeological evidence for the underground railroad? Northeast Historical Archaeology 33: 131–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delle, J. A., and Shellenhamer, J. (2008). Archaeology at the Parvin homestead: Searching for the material legacy of the underground railroad. Historical Archaeology 42(2): 38–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeWolf, T. N. (2008). Inheriting the Trade: A Northern Family Confronts Its Legacy as the Largest Slave-Trading Dynasty in U.S. History, Beacon Press, Boston, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deyle, S. (2006). Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards-Ingram, Y. (1999). The recent archaeology of enslaved Africans and African Americans. In Egan, G., and Michael, R. (eds.), Old and New Worlds, Oxbow Books, Oxford, UK, pp. 153–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards-Ingram, Y. (2005). Medicating Slavery: Motherhood, Health Care, and Cultural Practices in the African Diaspora, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA.

  • Eltis, D., and Halbert, M. (eds.) (2008). Voyages: Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database. http://www.slavevoyages.org/, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Eltis, D., and Richardson, D. (2008). A new assessment of the transatlantic slave trade. In Eltis, D., and Richardson, D. (eds.), Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, pp. 1–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, M. C. (1988). Decorated Clay Tobacco Pipes from the Chesapeake, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.

  • Emerson, M. C. (1999). African inspirations in a New World art and artifact: Decorated tobacco pipes from the Chesapeake. In Singleton, T. A. (ed.), “I, Too, Am America”: Archaeological Studies of African-American Life, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 47–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epperson, T. W. (1990). Race and the disciplines of the plantation. Historical Archaeology 24(4): 29–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epperson, T. W. (2001). “A separate house for the Christian slaves, one for the Negro slaves”: The archaeology of race and identity in late 17th-century Virginia. In Orser, C. E., Jr. (ed.), Race, Material Culture, and the Archaeology of Identity, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 71–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epperson, T. W. (2004). Critical race theory and the archaeology of the African diaspora. Historical Archaeology 38(1): 101–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Espenshade, C. (2007a). A river of doubt: Marked colonoware, underwater sampling, and questions of inference. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter March. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0307/news0307.html#2, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Espenshade, C. (2007b). Building on Joseph’s model of market-bound colonoware pottery. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter September. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0907/news0907.html#3, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Espenshade, C., and Kennedy, L. (2002). Recognizing individual potters in nineteenth-century colonoware. North American Archaeologist 23: 209–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairbanks, C. (1974). The Kingsley slave cabins in Duval County, Florida, 1968. Conference on Historic Sites Archaeology Papers 7: 62–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Falola, T., and Childs, M. D. (eds.) (2004). The Yoruba Diaspora in the Atlantic World, Indiana University Press, Indianapolis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrow, A., Lang, J., and Frank, J. (2005). Complicity: How the North Promoted, Prolonged, and Profited from Slavery, Ballantine Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennell, C. C. (2003). Group identity, individual creativity, and symbolic generation in a BaKongo diaspora. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 7: 1–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennell, C. C. (2007a). Crossroads and Cosmologies: Diasporas and Ethnogenesis in the New World, University Press of Florida, Gainesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennell, C. C. (2007b). BaKongo identity and symbolic expressions in the Americas. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 199–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennell, C. C. (2009). Combating attempts of elision: African American accomplishments at New Philadelphia, Illinois. In Ruggles, D. F., and Silverman, H. (eds.), Intangible Heritage Embodied, Springer Press, New York, pp. 147–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, L. G. (1992). Uncommon Ground: Archaeology and Early African America, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, L. G. (1999). “The Cross is a magic sign”: Marks on eighteenth-century bowls from South Carolina. In Singleton, T. A. (ed.), “I, Too, Am America”: Archaeological Studies of African-American Life, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 116–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, L. G. (2007a). Comments on Espenshade’s “A river of doubt: Marked colonoware, underwater sampling, and questions of inference.” African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter March. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0307/news0307.html#3, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Ferguson, L. G. (2007b). Early African-American pottery in South Carolina: A complicated plainware. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter June. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0607/news0607.html#1, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Fesler, G. (2004). Living arrangements among enslaved women and men at an early-eighteenth-century Virginia quartering site. In Galle, J. E., and Young, A. L. (eds.), Engendering African American Archaeology: A Southern Perspective, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 177–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitts, R. F. (1996). The landscapes of northern bondage. Historical Archaeology 30(2): 54–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M. (1997a). Out of Site, Out of Mind: The Archaeology of an Enslaved Virginian Household, ca. 1740–1778, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.

  • Franklin, M. (1997b). “Power to the people”: Sociopolitics and the archaeology of Black Americans. In McDavid, C., and Babson, D. W. (eds.), In the Realm of Politics: Prospects for Public Participation in African-American and Plantation Archaeology, Historical Archaeology 31(3): 36–50.

  • Franklin, M. (2001a). A Black feminist-inspired archaeology? Journal of Social Archaeology 1: 108–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M. (2001b). The archaeological and symbolic dimensions of soul food: Race, culture, and Afro-Virginian identity. In Orser, C. E., Jr. (ed.), Race, Material Culture, and the Archaeology of Identity, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 88–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M., and Fesler, G. (1999). The exploration of ethnicity and the historical archaeological record. In Franklin, M., and Fesler, G. (eds.), Historical Archaeology, Identity Formation, and the Interpretation of Ethnicity, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, VA, pp. 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, E. F. (1966a). The Negro Church: The Negro in America, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, E. F. (1966b). The Negro Family in the United States, Academic Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galke, L. J. (2000). “Free within Ourselves”: African American landscapes at Manassas Battlefield Park. In Geier, C. R., and Potter, S. R. (eds.), Archaeological Perspectives on the Civil War, University Press of Florida, Gainesville, pp. 253–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galke, L. J. (2009). Colonowhen, colonowho, colonowhere, colonowhy: Exploring the meaning behind the use of colonoware ceramics in nineteenth-century Manassas, Virginia. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 13: 303–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galle, J. E, and Young, A. L. (eds.) (2004). Engendering African American Archaeology: A Southern Perspective, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garman, J. C. (1994). Viewing the color line through the material culture of death. Historical Archaeology 28(3): 74–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • General Service Administration (GSA) (2007). African Burial Ground: Return to the Past to Build the Future, GSA, Washington, DC. http://www.africanburialground.gov/, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Genovese, E. (1976). Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made, Vintage Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Genovese, E. (1979). From Rebellion to Revolution: Afro-American Slave Revolts in the Making of the Modern World, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs, T., Cargill, C., Lieberman, L., and Reitz, E. (1980). Nutrition in a slave population: An anthropological examination. Medical Anthropology 4: 175–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ginsburg, R. (2007). Freedom and the slave landscape. Landscape Journal 26: 36–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glassie, H. (1975). Folk Housing in Middle Virginia: A Structural Analysis of Historic Artifacts, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gomez, M. A. (1998). Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, A., Jones, J., Reid, J., Mack, M., Blakey, M. L., Amarasiriwardena, D., Burton, P., and Coleman, P. (2004). Isotopic and elemental chemistry of teeth: Implications for places of birth, forced migration patterns, nutritional status, and pollution. In Blakey, M. L., and Rankin-Hill, L. M. (eds.), New York African Burial Ground Skeletal Biology Final Report, Volume I, Howard University, Washington, DC, pp. 216–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gradwohl, D. M., and Osborn, N. M. (1984). Exploring Buried Buxton: Archaeology of an Abandoned Iowa Coal Mining Town with a Large Black Population, Iowa State University Press, Ames.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groover, M. D., and Baumann, T. E. (1996). “They worked their own remedy”: African-American herbal medicine and the archaeological record. South Carolina Antiquities 28(1&2): 21–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gundaker, G. (1998). Signs of Diaspora, Diaspora of Signs: Literacies, Creolization, and Vernacular Practices in African America, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, G. (2005). Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handler, J. S. (1994). Determining African birth from skeletal remains: A note on tooth mutilation. Historical Archaeology 28(3): 113–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handler, J. S. (2006). On the transportation of material goods by enslaved Africans during the Middle Passage: Preliminary findings from documentary sources. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter December. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news1206/news1206.html#1, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Handler, J. S., Aufderheide, A. C., and Corruccini, R. S. (1986). Lead contact and poisoning in Barbados slaves: Historical, chemical, and bioanthropological evidence. Social Science History 10: 399–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, J. C. (1978). Dating stem fragments of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century clay tobacco pipes. In Schuyler, R. L. (ed.), Historical Archaeology: A Guide to Substantive Contributions, Baywood, Farmingdale, NY, pp. 63–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartsock, N. (1987). Rethinking modernism: Minority vs. majority theories. Cultural Critique 7: 187–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauser, M. W. (2007). Between urban and rural: Organization and distribution of local pottery in eighteenth-century Jamaica. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 292–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauser, M. W. (2008). An Archaeology of Black Markets: Local Ceramics and Economies in Eighteenth-Century Jamaica, University Press of Florida, Gainesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauser, M. W., and DeCorse, C. R. (2003). Low-fired earthenwares in the African diaspora: Problems and prospects. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 7: 67–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath, B. J. (2004). Engendering choice: Slavery and consumerism in central Virginia. In Galle, J. E., and Young, A. L. (eds.), Engendering African American Archaeology: A Southern Perspective, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 19–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath, B. J., and Bennett, A. (2000). “The little spots allow’d them”: The archaeological study of African-American yards. Historical Archaeology 34(2): 38–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegmon, M. (1992). Archaeological research on style. Annual Review of Anthropology 21: 517–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, S. L. (1979). Terra-cotta tobacco pipes in seventeenth-century Maryland and Virginia: A preliminary study. Historical Archaeology 13: 14–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herskovits, M. (1941). The Myth of the Negro Past, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heywood, L. (ed.) (2002). Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heywood, L. M., and Thornton, J. K. (2007). Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilliard, S. B. (1988). Hog meat and cornpone: Foodways in the antebellum South. In St. George, R. B. (ed.), Material Life in America, 1600–1860, Northeastern University Press, Boston, MA, pp. 311–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holloway, J. E. (1990). The origins of African-American culture. In Holloway, J. E. (ed.), Africanisms in American Culture, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howson, J. E. (1990). Social relations and material culture: A critique of the archaeology of plantation slavery. Historical Archaeology 24(4): 78–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, F. L., Mayes, A., Mack, M. E., Froment, A., Keita, S. O., Kittles, R. A., George, M., Shujaa, K., Blakey, M. L., and Rankin-Hill, L. M. (2006). Origins of the New York Burial Ground population: Biological evidence of geographical and macroethnic affiliations using craniometrics, dental morphology, and preliminary genetic analyses. In Blakey, M. L. and Rankin-Hill, L. M. (eds.), New York African Burial Ground Skeletal Biology Final Report, Volume I, Howard University, Washington, DC, pp. 150–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeppson, P. L. (2007). The archaeology of freedom and slavery at the President’s House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter June. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0607/news0607.html#5, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Jones, S. L. (1985). The African-American tradition in vernacular architecture. In Singleton, T. A. (ed.), The Archaeology of Slavery and Plantation Life, Academic Press, New York, pp. 195–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, J. W. (2003). White columns and Black hands: Class and classification in the plantation ideology of the Georgia and South Carolina lowcountry. Historical Archaeology 27(3): 57–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, J. W. (2004). Resistance and compliance: CRM and the archaeology of the African diaspora. Historical Archaeology 38(1): 18–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, J. W. (2005). African-American archaeology and colonowares from the Charleston Judicial Center Site (38CH1708). African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter September. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0905/news0905.html#2, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Joseph, J. W. (2007). One more look into the water – Colonoware in South Carolina rivers and Charleston’s market economy. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter June. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0607/news0607.html#2, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Keat, R., and Urry, J. (1982). Social Theory as Science, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, K. (2004). The African diaspora starts here: Historical archaeology of coastal West Africa. In Reid, A., and Lane, P. (eds.), African Historical Archaeologies, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press, New York, pp. 219–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelso, W. M. (1984). Kingsmill Plantations, 1619–1800: Archaeology of Country Life in Colonial Virginia, Academic Press, San Francisco, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraus-Friedberg, C., and Fellows, K. R. (2008). A report from the SHA meetings in Albuquerque: Exploring a more global perspective on plantation archaeology. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter, March. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0308/news0308.html#10, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Kulikoff, A. (1986). Tobacco and Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, 1680–1800, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landers, J. (1990). Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose: A free Black town in Spanish colonial Florida. American Historical Review 95: 9–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landon, D. (ed.) (2007). Investigating the Heart of a Community: Archaeological Excavations at the African Meeting House, Boston, Massachusetts, Andrew Fiske Memorial Center for Archaeological Research, University of Massachusetts, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaRoche, C. J. (2004). On the Edge of Freedom: Free Black Communities, Archaeology, and the Underground Railroad, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of American Studies, University of Maryland, College Park.

  • LaRoche, C. J., and Blakey, M. L. (1997). Seizing intellectual power: The dialogue at the New York African Burial Ground. In McDavid, C., and Babson, D. W. (eds.), In the Realm of Politics: Prospects for Public Participation in African–American and Plantation Archaeology, Historical Archaeology 31(3): 84–106.

  • La Rosa Corzo, G. (2003). Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leone, M. P. (2005). Archaeology of Liberty in an American Capital: Excavations in Annapolis, University of California Press, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leone, M. P., and Fry, G. (1999). Conjuring in the big house kitchen: An interpretation of African American belief systems based on the uses of archaeology and folklore sources. Journal of American Folklore 112: 372–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, L. W. (1977). Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Long, C. H. (1997). Perspectives for a study of African-American religion in the United States. In Fulop, T. E., and Raboteau, A. J. (eds.), African-American Religion: Interpretive Essays in History and Culture, Routledge, New York, pp. 22–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, P., and Trotman, D. (eds.) (2004). Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora, Continuum International, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luckenbach, A. (2004). The Swan Cove kiln: Chesapeake tobacco pipe production, circa 1650–1669. In Hunter, R. (ed.), Ceramics in America 2004, Chipstone Foundation, Milwaukee, WI, pp. 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luckenbach, A., and Kiser, T. (2006). Seventeenth-century tobacco pipe manufacturing in the Chesapeake region: A preliminary delineation of makers and their styles. In Hunter, R. (ed.), Ceramics in America 2006, Chipstone Foundation, Milwaukee, WI, pp. 161–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lydersen, K. (2009). Who went with Columbus? Dental studies give clues. Washington Post, May 18.

  • MacDonald, K. C., Morgan, D. W., and Handley, F. J. (2006). The Cane River African diaspora archaeological project: Prospectus and initial results. In Haviser, J. B., and MacDonald, K. C. (eds.), African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora, University College London Press, New York, pp. 123–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mack, M. E., and Blakey, M. L. (2004). The New York African Burial Ground project: Past biases, current dilemmas, and future research opportunities. Historical Archaeology 38(1): 10–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mascia-Lees, F. E., Sharpe, P., and Cohen, C. B. (1989). The postmodernist turn in anthropology: Cautions from a feminist perspective. Signs 15: 7–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J. P. (1997). Material culture and the performance of sociocultural identity: Community, ethnicity, and agency in the burial practices at the First African Baptist Church cemeteries, Philadelphia, 1810–1841. In Martin, A. S., and Garrison, J. R. (eds.), American Material Culture: The Shape of the Field, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 359–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J. P. (2006). African community identity at the cemetery. In Haviser, J. B., and MacDonald, K. C. (eds.), African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora, University College London Press, New York, pp. 176–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDavid, C. (1997). Descendants, decisions, and power: The public interpretation of the archaeology of the Levi Jordan plantation. Historical Archaeology 31(3): 114–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGhee, F. (2007). Maritime archaeology and the African Diaspora. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 384–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKee, L. (1995). The Earth is their witness. The Sciences 35(2): 36–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKee, L. (1999). Food supply and plantation social order: An archaeological perspective. In Singleton, T. (ed.), “I, Too, Am America”: Archaeological Studies of African-American Life, University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville, pp. 218–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKee, L. (2004). Epilogue: An end to the eerie silence. In Galle, J. E., and Young, A. L. (eds.), Engendering African American Archaeology: A Southern Perspective, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 287–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mintz, S. W., and Price, R. (1976). An Anthropological Approach to the Afro-American Past: A Caribbean Perspective, Institute for the Study of Human Issues, Philadelphia, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, P. (2005). African Connections: Archaeological Perspectives on Africa and the Wider World, AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monroe, J. C. (2002). Negotiating African-American Ethnicity in the 17th-Century Chesapeake: Colono Tobacco Pipes and the Ethnic Uses of Style, BAR International Series 1042, Archaeopress, Oxford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monroe, J. C., and Mallios, S. (2004). A seventeenth-century colonial cottage industry: New evidence and a dating formula for colono tobacco pipes in the Chesapeake. Historical Archaeology 38(2): 68–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, D. D., and Malcom, C. (2008). Seventeenth-century vehicle of the Middle Passage: Archaeological and historical investigations on the Henrietta Marie shipwreck site. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 12: 20–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, E. (1975). American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia, Norton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, P. D. (1979). Task and gang systems: The organization of labor on new plantations. In Innes, S. (ed.), Work and Labor in Early America, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, pp. 189–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, P. D. (1998). Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mouer, L. D., Hodges, M. E., Potter, S. R., Renaud, S. L., Noël Hume, I., Pogue, D. J., McCartney, M. W., and Davidson, T. E. (1999). Colonoware pottery, Chesapeake pipes, and “uncritical assumptions.” In Singleton, T. A. (ed.), “I, Too, Am America”: Archaeological Studies of African-American Life, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 83–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mrozowski, S. A., Hayes, K. H., Trigg, H., Gary, J., Landon, D., and Piechota, D. (2007). Conclusion: Meditations on the archaeology of a northern plantation. In Hayes, K. H., and Mrozowski, S. A. (eds.), Archaeology of Sylvester Manor, Northeast Historical Archaeology 36: 143–156.

  • Mrozowski, S. A., Franklin, M., and Hunt, L. (2008). Archaeobotanical analysis and interpretations of enslaved Virginian plant use at Rich Neck plantation. American Antiquity 73: 699–728.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mullins, P. R. (1999). Race and Affluence: An Archaeology of African America and Consumer Culture, Plenum, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mullins, P. R. (2008). Excavating America’s metaphor: Race, diaspora and vindicationist archaeologies. Historical Archaeology 42(2): 104–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mulroy, K. (1993). Freedom on the Border: The Seminole Maroons in Florida, the Indian Territory, Coahuila, and Texas, Texas Technology University Press, Lubbock.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neiman, F. D. (1980). The “Manner House” before Stratford (Discovering the Clifts Plantation), Robert E. Lee Memorial Association, Stratford, VA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neiman, F. D. (2008). The lost world of Monticello: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Anthropological Research 64: 161–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neiman, F. D., and King, J. A. (1999). Who smoked Chesapeake pipes? Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Salt Lake City, UT.

  • Niven, L. (1994). Birchtown Archaeological Survey (1993), Roseway, Lockeport, Nova Scotia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Niven, L. (1999). Black Loyalist archaeology at Birchtown, Nova Scotia. African-American Archaeology Newsletter Spring. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Ogundiran, A. (2008). African Atlantic archaeology and Africana studies: A programmatic agenda. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter June. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0608/news0608.html#1, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (2007). Pathways in the archaeology of transatlantic Africa. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 3–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orser, C. E., Jr. (1988). The archaeological analysis of plantation society: Replacing status and caste with economics and power. American Antiquity 53: 735–751.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orser, C. E., Jr. (1994). The archaeology of African-American slave religions in the antebellum South. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 4: 33–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orser, C. E., Jr. (2003). Race and Practice in Archaeological Interpretation, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orser, C. E., Jr. (2007). The Archaeology of Race and Racialization in Historic America, University Press of Florida, Gainesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orser, C. E., Jr., and Funari, P. P. (2001). The archaeology of slave resistance and rebellion. World Archaeology 33: 61–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Otto, J. S. (1984). Cannon’s Point Plantation, 1794–1850: Living Conditions and Status Patterns in the Old South, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patten, D. (1992). Mankala and minkisi: Possible evidence of African American folk beliefs and practices. African-American Archaeology: Newsletter of the African-American Archaeology Network 6: 5–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paynter, R. (2000). Historical archaeology and the post-Columbian world of North America. Journal of Archaeological Research 8: 169–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paynter, R., Hautaniemi, S., and Muller, N. (1994). The landscapes of the W. E. B. Du Bois boyhood homesite: An agenda for an archaeology of the color line. In Gregory, S., and Sanjek, R. (eds.), Race, Rutgers University Press, Brunswick, NJ, pp. 285–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, W. R., Howson, J., and Bianco, B. A. (2006). Conclusion and epilogue. In Perry, W. R., Howson, J., and Bianco, B. A. (eds.), New York African Burial Ground Archaeology Final Report, Volume 1, Howard University, Washington, DC, pp. 444–455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, T. D., Tiesler, V., and Burton, J. H. (2006). Early African diaspora in colonial Campeche, Mexico: Strontium isotopic evidence. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 130: 485–490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raboteau, A. J. (1980). Slave Religion: The Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rankin-Hill, L. M. (1997). A Bio-History of 19th-Century Afro-Americans: The Burial Remains of a Philadelphia Cemetery, Bergin & Garvey, Westport, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rawick, G. P. (1978). Some notes on a social analysis of slavery: A critique and assessment of “The Slave Community.” In Gilmore, A. (ed.), Revisiting Blassingame’s “The Slave Community”: The Scholars Respond, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, pp. 17–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rediker, M. (2007). The Slave Ship: A Human History, Viking/Penguin, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reitz, E. J. (1994). Zooarchaeological analysis of a free African community: Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose. Historical Archaeology 28(1): 23–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rorty, R. (1979). Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rouse, J. (1998). New philosophies of science in North America: Twenty years later. Journal for General Philosophy of Science 29: 71–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruppel, T., Neuwirth, J., Leone, M., and Fry, G. (2003). Hidden in view: African spiritual spaces in North American landscapes. Antiquity 77: 321–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sackett, J. R. (1985). Style and ethnicity in the Kalahari: A reply to Wiessner. American Antiquity 50: 154–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samford, P. M. (1994). Searching for West African cultural meanings in the archaeological record. African-American Archaeology: Newsletter of the African-American Archaeology Network 12 (Winter). http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/A-AAnewsletter/Winter1994.html, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Samford, P. M. (2004). Engendering enslaved communities on Virginia’s and North Carolina’s eighteenth- and nineteenth-century plantations. In Galle, J. E., and Young, A. L. (eds.), Engendering African American Archaeology: A Southern Perspective, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 151–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samford, P. M. (2007). Subfloor Pits and the Archaeology of Slavery in Colonial Virginia, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sayers, D. O., Burke, P. B., and Henry, A. M. (2007). The political economy of exile in the Great Dismal Swamp. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 11: 60–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, H., and Shuler, K. A. (2006). Isotopic investigations at Newton Plantation, Barbados: A progress report. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter September. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0906/news0906.html#1, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Sealy, J., Armstrong, R., and Schrire, C. (1995). Beyond lifetime averages: Racing life histories through isotopic analysis of different calcified tissues from archaeological human skeletons. Antiquity 69: 290–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seeman, E. R. (2010). Reassessing the “Sankofa symbol” in New York’s African Burial Ground. William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 67: 101–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shackel, P. A. (2006). New Philadelphia archaeology: Race, community, and the Illinois frontier: report on the 2004–2006 excavations sponsored by the National Science Foundation Research Experiences for Undergraduates. http://heritage.umd.edu/chrsweb/New%20Philadelphia/2006report/2006menu.htm, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Shackel, P. A., and Larsen, D. L. (2000). Labor, racism, and the built environment in early industrial Harpers Ferry. In Delle, J. A., Mrozowski, S. A., and Paynter, R. (eds.), Lines that Divide: Historical Archaeologies of Race, Class, and Gender, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 22–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shanks, M., and Tilley, C. (1992). Re-Constructing Archaeology: Theory and Practice, Routledge, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shorter, A. (1972). Symbolism, ritual and history: An examination of the work of Victor Turner. In Ranger, T. O., and Kimambo, I. N. (eds.), The Historical Study of African Religion, Heinemann, London, pp. 139–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, T. A. (1985). Archaeological implications for changing labor conditions. In Singleton, T. A. (ed.), The Archaeology of Slavery and Plantation Life, Academic Press, New York, pp. 291–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, T. A. (1990). The archaeology of the plantation south: A review of approaches and goals. Historical Archaeology 24(4): 70–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, T. A., and Bograd, M. (2000). Breaking typological barriers: Looking for the colono in colonoware. In Delle, J. A., Mrozowski, S. A., and Paynter, R. (eds.), Lines that Divide: Historical Archaeologies of Race, Class, and Gender, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 3–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smardz Frost, K. (2007). I’ve Got a Home in Glory Land: A Lost Tale of the Underground Railroad, Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • South, S. (1977). Method and Theory in Historical Archeology, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stine, L. F., Cabak, M. A., and Groover, M. D. (1996). Blue beads as African-American cultural symbols. Historical Archaeology 30(3): 49–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuckey, S. (1987). Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Symanski, L. C. (2006). Slaves and Planters in Western Brazil: Material Culture, Identity and Power, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville.

  • Thomas, K. (1971). Religion and the Decline of Magic, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R. F. (1993). Face of the Gods: Art and Altars of Africa and African Americas, Museum for African Art, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, J. K. (1998). Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilley, C. (1999). Metaphor and Material Culture, Blackwell, Oxford, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, V. (1973). Symbols in African ritual. Science 179: 1100–1105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Upton, D. (1982). The origins of Chesapeake architecture. In Three Centuries of Maryland Architecture, Maryland Historical Trust, Annapolis, pp. 44–57.

  • Upton, D. (1985). White and Black landscapes in eighteenth-century Virginia. Places 2(2): 59–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Upton, D. (1990). Imagining the early Virginia landscape. In Kelso, W., and Most, R. (eds.), Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archaeology, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, pp. 71–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vlach, J. M. (1990). The Afro-American Tradition in Decorative Arts, University of Georgia Press, Athens.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vlach, J. M. (1993). Back of the Big House: The Architecture of Plantation Slavery, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vlach, J. M. (2004). Above ground on the underground railroad: Places of flight and refuge. In Blight, D. W. (ed.), Passages to Freedom: The Underground Railroad in History and Memory, Smithsonian Books, Washington, DC, pp. 95–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, L. S. (1997). From Calabar to Carter’s Grove: The History of a Virginia Slave Community, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, L. S. (2001). The Chesapeake slave trade: Regional patterns, African origins, and some implications. William & Mary Quarterly (3d ser.) 58: 139–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warner, M. S. (1998). Food and the Negotiation of African-American Identities in Annapolis, Maryland and the Chesapeake, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.

  • Webster, J. (2008a). Historical archaeology and the slave ship. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 12: 1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster, J. (2008b). Slave ships and maritime archaeology: An overview. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 12: 6–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weik, T. (2004). Archaeology of the African diaspora in Latin America. Historical Archaeology 38(1): 32–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weik, T. (2007). Allies, adversaries, and kin in the African Seminole communities of Florida: Archaeology at Pilaklikaha. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 311–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weik, T. (2008). Mexico’s cimarron heritage and archaeological record. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter June. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0608/news0608.html#3, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Weik, T. (2009). The role of ethnogenesis and organization in the development of African-Native American settlements: An African Seminole model. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 13: 206–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheaton, T. R., and Garrow, P. (1985). Acculturation and the archaeological record in the Carolina lowcountry. In Singleton, T. A. (ed.), The Archaeology of Slavery and Plantation Life, Academic Press, New York, pp. 239–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheaton, T. R., Friedlander, A., and Garrow, P. (1983). Yaughan and Curiboo Plantations: Studies in African American Archaeology, Soil Systems, Inc., Marietta, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitfield, H. A. (2006). Blacks on the Border: The Black Refugees in British North America, 1813–1900, University of Vermont Press, Burlington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiessner, P. (1985). Style or isochrestic variation? A reply to Sackett. American Antiquity 50: 160–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkie, L. A. (1997). Secret and sacred: Contextualizing the artifacts of African-American magic and religion. Historical Archaeology 31(4): 81–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkie, L. A. (2000). Creating Freedom: Material Culture and African American Identity at Oakley Plantation, Louisiana, 1840–1950, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkie, L. A. (2003). The Archaeology of Mothering: An African-American Midwife’s Tale, Routledge, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkie, L. A., and Hayes, K. H. (2006). Engendered and feminist archaeologies of the recent and documented pasts. Journal of Archaeological Research 14: 243–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wobst, H. M. (1977). Stylistic behavior and information exchange. In Cleland, C. E. (ed.), Papers for the Director: Research Essays in Honor of James B. Griffin, Anthropological Papers No. 61, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp. 317–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wobst, H. M. (2000). Agency in (spite of) material culture. In Dobres, M., and Robb, J. E. (eds.), Agency in Archaeology, Routledge, London, pp. 40–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wylie, A. (1985). Between philosophy and archaeology. American Antiquity 50: 478–490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wylie, A. (1996). The constitution of archaeological evidence: Gender politics and science. In Galison, P., and Stump, D. J. (eds.), The Disunity of Science: Boundaries, Contexts, and Power, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, pp. 311–343.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamin, R. (2008). Digging in the City of Brotherly Love: Stories from Philadelphia Archaeology, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yentsch, A. E. (1992). Gudgeons, mullet, and proud pigs: Historicity, Black fisherman, and southern myth. In Yentsch, A., and Beaudry, M. C. (eds.), The Art and Mystery of Historical Archaeology: Essays in Honor of Jim Deetz, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 283–314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yentsch, A. E. (1994). A Chesapeake Family and Their Slaves: A Study in Historical Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yentsch, A. E. (2008). Excavating the South’s African American food history. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter June. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0608/news0608.html#2, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Yoder, D. (1965). Official religion versus folk religion. Pennsylvania Folklife 15(2): 36–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, A. L. (1996). Archaeological evidence of African-style ritual and healing practices in the upland South. Tennessee Anthropologist 21: 139–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, A. L. (1997). Risk management strategies among African-American slaves at Locust Grove plantation. International Journal of Historical Archaeology 1: 5–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, A. L. (2004). Risk and women’s roles in the slave family: Data from Oxmoor and Locust Grove plantations in Kentucky. In Galle, J. E., and Young, A. L. (eds.), Engendering African American Archaeology: A Southern Perspective, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, pp. 133–150.

    Google Scholar 

Bibliography of recent literature

  • Bower, A. (ed.) (2007). African American Foodways: Exploration of History and Culture, University of Illinois Press, Urbana.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, V. (2008). The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrd, A. X. (2006). Eboe, country, nation, and Gustavus Vassa’s “interesting narrative.” William and Mary Quarterly (3d ser.) 63: 123–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabak, M. A., and Groover, M. D. (2004). Plantations without Pillars: Archaeology, Wealth and Material Life at Bush Hill, Volume I, Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina, Columbia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Camp, S. (2004). Closer to Freedom: Enslaved Women and Everyday Resistance in the Plantation South, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretta, V. (2005). Equiano, the African: Biography of a Self-Made Man, University of Georgia Press, Athens.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, D. B. (2005). Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia, University Press of Mississippi, Jackson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curto, J. C., and Soulodre-La France, R. (eds.) (2005). Africa and the Americas: Interconnections during the Slave Trade, Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawdy, S. L. (2008). Building the Devil’s Empire: French Colonial New Orleans, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diouf, S. A. (2007). Dreams of Africa in Alabama: The Story of the Clotilda and the Last Enslaved Africans brought to America, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunaway, W. A. (2003). Slavery in the American Mountain South, Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunaway, W. A. (2003). The African-American Family in Slavery and Emancipation, Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ely, M. P. (2004). Israel on the Appomattox: A Southern Experiment in Black Freedom from the 1790s through the Civil War, Knopf, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fennell, C. C. (ed.) (2008). African Diaspora Archaeology, Society for Historical Archaeology, Tucson, AZ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fields-Black, E. L. (2008). “Deep Roots”: Rice Farmers in West Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Franklin, M., and McKee, L. (2004). African diaspora archaeologies: Present insights and expanding discourses. Historical Archaeology 38(1): 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glymph, T. (2008). Out of the House of Bondage: The Transformation of the Plantation Household, Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon-Reed, A. (2008). The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family, W. W. Norton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goucher, C. L. (2007). African metallurgy in the Atlantic World. In Ogundiran, A., and Falola, T. (eds.), Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, pp. 277–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gundaker, G., and McWillie, J. (eds.) (2005). No Space Hidden: The Spirit of African American Yard Work, University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville.

    Google Scholar 

  • Handler, J. S., and Tuite, M. L., Jr. (2008). The Atlantic Slave Trade and Slave Life in the Americas: A Visual Record, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities and the Digital Media Lab at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville. http://www.slaveryimages.org, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Henry, C. P. (2007). Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations, New York University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, J. W., Hamby, T. M., and Long, C. S. (2004). Historical Archaeology in Georgia, Laboratory of Archaeology, University of Georgia, Athens.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaye, A. E. (2007). Joining Places: Slave Neighborhoods in the Old South, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, P. (2007). Issues of motivation: Vassa/Equiano and Carretta’s critique of the evidence. Slavery and Abolition 28: 121–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miles, T., and Holland, S. P. (eds.) (2006). Crossing Waters, Crossing Worlds: The African Diaspora in Indian Country, Duke University Press, Durham, NC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, J. L. (2004). Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Opoku-Agyemang, N. J., Lovejoy, P. E., and Trotman, D. D. (eds.) (2008). Africa and Trans-Atlantic Memories: Literary and Aesthetic Manifestations of Diaspora and History, Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmié, S. (2007). Is there a model in the muddle? “Creolization” in African Americanist history and anthropology. In Stewart, C. (ed.), Creolization: History, Ethnography, Theory, Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, CA, pp. 178–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Price, R. (2006). On the miracle of creolization. In Yelvington, K. A. (ed.), Afro-Atlantic Dialogues: Anthropology in the Diaspora, School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM, pp. 115–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pybus, C. (2006). Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and their Global Quest for Freedom, Beacon Press, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ravage, J. W. (2008). Black Pioneers: Images of the Black Experience on the North American Frontier, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, R. J. (2005). Degrees of Freedom: Louisiana and Cuba after Slavery, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sidbury, J. (2007). Becoming African in America: Race and Nation in the Early Black Atlantic, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, T. A. (2006). African diaspora archaeology in dialogue. In Yelvington, K. A. (ed.), Afro-Atlantic Dialogues: Anthropology in the Diaspora, School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM, pp. 249–287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smallwood, S. E. (2007). Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas Jefferson Foundation (2008). Digital Archaeological Archive of Comparative Slavery, Thomas Jefferson Foundation, Charlottesville, VA. http://www.daacs.org/, accessed 4 September 2009.

  • Todd, L. (2008). Carolina Clay: The Legend of the Slave Potter Dave, Norton, New York.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

My sincere thanks to editors Gary Feinman and Douglas Price; editorial assistant Linda Nicholas; peer reviewers Whitney Battle-Baptiste, Mark Groover, Charles E. Orser, Jr., Robert Paynter, and Mark Warner; and two anonymous reviewers. I am also grateful for comments by Christopher Espenshade, Leland Ferguson, and J. W. Joseph.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christopher C. Fennell.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fennell, C.C. Early African America: Archaeological Studies of Significance and Diversity. J Archaeol Res 19, 1–49 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-010-9042-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-010-9042-x

Keywords

Navigation