Abstract
Water is already a limited resource in California, and meeting the competing water needs, there will be only more challenges in the coming decades. Thus, sustaining the production of wine grapes, which are among the highest value specialty crops in the state, requires water to be used efficiently as possible. At the same time, improving irrigation management in vineyards requires spatially distributed information regarding vine water use or evapotranspiration (ET) at the sub-field scale that can only be collected via remote sensing. However, due to their unique canopy structure, current remote sensing models may not accurately describe the underlying turbulent exchange controlling ET from vineyards. To address that knowledge gap, this study investigates the vertical turbulent structure over a vineyard in the Central Valley of California. Using data from a profile of sonic anemometers (2.5 m, 3.75 m, 5 m, and 8 m, above the surface) collected during 2017 as a part of the Grape Remote sensing Atmospheric Profile and Evapotranspiration eXperiment (GRAPEX), this study characterized the relationship between the turbulent flow at different heights using spectral analysis. It was found that the turbulent structure is strongly influenced by the underlying canopy. It also showed that the characteristics of the vertical structure differ significantly from what would be expected over other types of crops because of the unique configuration of vineyards, i.e., the concentration of the biomass in the upper part of the canopy and wide inter-row spacing. As a result, surface energy balance modeling using remote sensing data will likely require modifications to formulations of the turbulent energy exchange of the inter-row-canopy system with the lower atmosphere to reliably estimate vine ET. An example of this effect is shown for the mean wind profile which deviates from predicted profile using classical Monin–Obukhov similarity theory (MOST) used in remote sensing-based energy balance models resulting in errors in heat flux exchange which in turn affects modeled ET.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this article is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute official endorsement or approval by the US Department of Agriculture or the Agricultural Research Service of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable
References
Alfieri JG, Prueger JH, Gish TJ, Kustas WP, McKee LG, Russ AL (2017) The effective evaluation height for flux-gradient relationships and its application to herbicide fluxes. Agric for Meteorol 232:628–688
Alfieri JG, Kustas WP, Nieto H, Prueger JH, Hipps LE, McKee LG, Gao F, Los S (2019a) Influence of wind direction on the surface roughness of vineyards. Irrig Sci 37:359–373
Alfieri JG, Kustas WP, Prueger JH, McKee LG, Hipps LE, Gao F (2019b) A multi-year intercomparison of micrometeorological observations at adjacent vineyards in California’s central valley during GRAPEX. Irrig Sci 37:345–357
Amiro B (1990) Drag Coefficients and turbulence spectra within three boreal forest canopies. Bound-Layer Meteorol 52:227–246
Asner GP, Brodrick PG, Anderson CB, Vaughn N, Knapp DE, Martin RE (2016) Progressive forest canopy water loss during the 2012–2015 California drought. Proc Natl Acad Sci 113:E249–E255
Bailey BN, Stoll R (2013) Turbulence in sparse, organized vegetative canopies: a large-eddy simulation study. Bound-Layer Meteorol 147:369–400
Bailey BN, Stoll R, Pardyjak ER, Mahaffee WF (2014) Effect of vegetative canopy architecture on vertical transport of massless particles. Atmos Environ 95:480–489
Baldocchi DD, Hutchison BA (1988) Turbulence in an almond orchard: spatial variations in spectra and coherence. Bound-Layer Meteorol 42:293–311
Baldocchi DD, Meyers T (1988) A spectral and lag-correlation analysis of turbulence in a deciduous forest canopy. Bound-Layer Meteorol 45:31–58
Baldocchi DD, Dralle D, Jiang C, Ryu Y (2019) How much water is evaporated across California? A multiyear assessment using a biophysical model forced with satellite remote sensing data. Water Resour Res 55:2722–2741
Bernacchi LA, Fernandez-Bou AS, Viers JH, Valero-Fandino J, Medellín-Azuara J (2020) A glass half empty: limited voices, limited groundwater security for California. Sci Total Environ 738:139529
Brunet Y (2020) Turbulent flow in plant canopies: historical perspective and overview. Bound-Layer Meteorol 177:315–364
Brunet Y, Finnigan JJ, Raupach MR (1994) A wind tunnel study of air flow in waving wheat: single-point velocity statistics. Bound-Layer Meteorol 70:95–132
California Department of Water Resources (2017) Water Year 2017. https://water.ca.gov/-/media/DWR-Website/Web-Pages/Programs/Groundwater-Management/Data-and-Tools/Files/Statewide-Reports/Water-Year-2017---What-a-Difference-a-Year-Makes_ay_19.pdf. Accessed 1 July 2021
Chahine A, Dupont S, Sinfort C, Brunet Y (2014) Wind-flow dynamics over a vineyard. Bound-Layer Meteorol 151:557–577
Chang H, Bonnette MR (2016) Climate change and water-related ecosystem services: impacts of drought in California, USA. Ecosyst Health Sustain 2:e01254
Chen X, Su Z, Ma Y, Wen J, Zhang Y (2013) An improvement of roughness height parameterization of the Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) over the Tibetan Plateau. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 52:607–622
Cheng Y, Sayde C, Li Q, Basara J, Selker J, Tanner E, Gentine P (2017) Failure of Taylor’s hypothesis in the atmospheric surface layer and its correction for eddy-covariance measurements. Geophys Res Lett 44:4287–4295
Dettinger MD, Ralph FM, Das T, Neiman PJ, Cayan DR (2011) Atmospheric rivers, floods and the water resources of California. Water 3:445–478
Diffenbaugh NS, Swain DL, Touma D (2015) Anthropogenic warming has increased drought risk in California. Proc Natl Acad Sci 112(13):3931–3936
Dupont S, Patton EG (2012a) Influence of stability and seasonal canopy changes on micrometeorology within and above an orchard canopy: The CHATS experiment. Agric for Meteorol 157:11–29
Dupont S, Patton EG (2012b) Momentum and scalar transport within a vegetation canopy following atmospheric stability and seasonal canopy changes: the CHATS experiment. Atmos Chem Phys 12:5913–5935
Everard KA, Oldroyd HJ, Christen A (2020) Turbulent heat and momentum exchange in nocturnal drainage flow through a sloped vineyard. Bound-Layer Meteorol 75:1–23
Everard KA, Katul GG, Lawrence GA, Christen A, Parlange MB (2021) Sweeping effects modify Taylor’s frozen turbulence hypothesis for scalars in the roughness sublayer. Geophys Res Lett 48:e2021GL093746
Finnigan JJ (2000) Turbulence in plant canopies. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 32:519–571
Finnigan JJ, Shaw RH, Patton EG (2009) Turbulence structure above a vegetation canopy. J Fluid Mech 637:387–424
Foken T (2006) 50 years of the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory. Bound-Layer Meteorol 119:431–447
Heilman JL, McInnes KJ, Savage MJ, Gesch RW, Lascano RJ (1994) Soil and canopy energy balances in a west Texas vineyard. Agric for Meteorol 71:99–114
Hicks BB (1973) Eddy flux over a vineyard. Agric for Meteorol 12:203–215
Higgins C, Froidevaux M, Simeonov V, Vercauteren N, Barry C, Parlange M (2012) The effect of scale on the applicability of Taylor’s frozen turbulence hypothesis in the atmospheric boundary layer. Bound-Layer Meteorol 143:379–391
Ghannam K, Katul GG, Bou-Zeid E, Gerken T, Chamecki M (2018) Scaling and similarity of the anisotropic coherent eddies in near-surface atmospheric turbulence. J Atmos Sci 75:943–964
Griffin D, Anchukaitis KJ (2014) How unusual is the 2012–2014 California drought? Geophys Res Lett 41:9017–9023
Jeanne P, Farr TG, Rutqvist J, Vasco DW (2019) Role of agricultural activity on land subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, California. J Hydrol 569:462–469
Kaimal JC (1973) Turbulence spectra, length scales, and structure parameters in the stable surface layer. Bound-Layer Meteorol 4:289–309
Kaimal JC (1978) Horizontal velocity spectra in an unstable surface layer. J Atmos Sci 35:18–24
Kaimal JC, Finnigan JJ (1994) Atmospheric boundary layer flows. Oxford University Press, Oxford, p 289
Kaimal JC, Wyngaard JC, Izumi Y, Cote R (1972) Spectral characteristics of surface-layer turbulence. Quart J Roy Meteorol Soc 98:563–589
Kustas WP, Norman JM (1999) Evaluation of soil and vegetation heat flux predictions using a simple two-source model with radiometric temperatures for partial canopy cover. Agric for Meteorol 94(1):13–29
Knipper KR, Kustas WP, Anderson MC, Alfieri JG, Prueger JH, Hain CR, Gao F, Yang Y, McKee LG, Nieto H, Hipps LE, Alsina MM, Sanchez L (2019) Evapotranspiration estimates derived using thermal-based satellite remote sensing and data fusion for irrigation management in California vineyards. Irrig Sci 37:431–449
Kustas W, Norman J (2000) A two-source energy balance approach using directional radiometric temperature observations for sparse canopy covered surfaces. Agron J 92(5):847–854
Kustas WP, Anderson MC, Alfieri JG, Knipper K, Torrez-Rua A, Parry CK, Nieto H, Agam N, White WA, Gao F, McKee LG, Prueger JH, Hipps LE, Alsina M, Sanchez L, Sams B, Dokoozlian N, McKee M, McElrone A, Heitman JL, Howard AM, Post K, Melton F (2018) An overview of the Grape Remote sensing Atmospheric Profile and Evapotranspiration eXperiment (GRAPEX). Bull Am Meteorol Soc 99:1791–1812
Li D, Bou-Zeid E (2011) Coherent structures and the dissimilarity of turbulent transport of momentum and scalars in the unstable atmospheric surface layer. Bound-Layer Meteorol 140:243–262
Lockhart KM, King AM, Harter T (2013) Identifying sources of groundwater nitrate contamination in a large alluvial groundwater basin with highly diversified intensive agricultural production. J Contam Hydrol 151:140–154
Los S, Hipps LE, Alfieri JG, Kustas WP, Prueger JH (2019) Intermittency of water vapor fluxes from vineyards during light wind and convective conditions. Irrig Sci 37:281–295
Lund J, Medellin-Azuara J, Durand J, Stone K (2018) Lessons from California’s 2012–2016 drought. J Water Resour Plann Manage 144:04018067
Madakumbura GD, Goulden ML, Hall A, Fu R, Moritz MA, Koven CD, Kueppers LM, Norlen CA, Randerson JT (2020) Recent California tree mortality portends future increase in drought-driven forest die-off. Environ Res Lett 15:124040
Mao Y, Nijssen B, Lettenmaier DP (2015) Is climate change implicated in the 2013–2014 California drought? A hydrologic perspective. Geophys Res Lett 42:2805–2813
McNaughton KG, Laubach J (2000) Power spectra and cospectra for wind and scalars in a disturbed surface layer at the base of an advective inversion. Bound-Layer Meteorol 96:143–185
Miller NE, Stoll R, Mahaffee W, Neill TM, Pardyjak E (2015) An experimental study of momentum and heavy particle transport in a trellised agricultural canopy. Agric for Meteorol 211–212:100–114
Miller NE, Stoll R, Mahaffee W, Pardyjak ER (2017) The mean and turbulent flow statistics in a trellised agricultural canopy. Bound-Layer Meteorol 165:113–143
Monin AS, Obukhov AM (1954) Basic laws of turbulent mixing in the atmosphere near the ground. Tr Akad Nauk SSSR Geophiz Inst 24(151):163–187
Nieto H, Kustas WP, Alfieri JG, Gao F, Hipps LE, Los S, Prueger JH, McKee LG, Anderson MC (2019) Impact of different within-canopy wind attenuation formulations on modelling sensible heat flux using TSEB. Irrig Sci 37:315–331
Norman JM, Kustas WP, Humes KS (1995) Source approach for estimating soil and vegetation energy fluxes in observations of directional radiometric surface temperature. Agric for Meteorol 77(3–4):263–293
Panofsky HA, Dutton JA (1984) Atmospheric turbulence. John Wiley & Sons, New York, p 397
Panofsky H, Tennekes H, Lenschow D, Wyngaard J (1977) The characteristics of turbulent velocity components in the surface layer under convective conditions. Boundary-Layer Meteorol 11:355–361
Pathak TB, Maskey ML, Dahlberg JA, Kearns F, Bali KM, Zaccaria D (2018) Climate change trends and impacts on California agriculture: a detailed review. Agronomy 8:25
Pauloo RA, Escriva-Bou A, Dahlke H, Fencl A, Guillon H, Fogg GE (2020) Domestic well vulnerability to drought duration and unsustainable groundwater management in California’s Central Valley. Environ Res Lett 15:044010
Paulson CA (1970) The mathematical representation of wind speed and temperature profiles in the unstable atmospheric boundary layer. J Appl Meteorol 9:857–861
Prueger JH, Gish TJ, McConnell LL, McKee LG, Hatfield J, Kustas WP (2005) Solar radiation, relative humidity, and soil water effects on metolachlor volatilization. Environ Sci Technol 39:5219–5226
Prueger JH, Alfieri JG, Hipps LE, Kustas WP, Chavez JL, Evett SR, Anderson MC, French AN, Neale CMU, McKee LG, Hatfield JL, Howell TA, Agam N (2012) Patch scale turbulence over dryland and irrigated surfaces in a semi-arid landscape under advective conditions during BEAREX08. Adv Water Resour 50:106–119
Raupach MR, Coppin PA, Legg BJ (1986) Experiments on scalar dispersion within a model plant canopy. Part I: the turbulent structure. Bound-Layer Meteorol 35:21–52
Raupach MR, Finnigan JJ, Brunet Y (1996) Coherent eddies and turbulence in vegetation canopies: the mixing layer analogy. Bound-Layer Meteorol 78:351–382
Schoups G, Hopmans JW, Young CA, Vrugt JA, Wallender WW, Tanji KK, Panday S (2005) Sustainability of irrigated agriculture in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Proc Natl Acad Sci 102:15352–15356
Smith RG, Knight R, Chen J, Reeves JA, ZebkerHA FT, Liu Z (2017) Estimating the permanent loss of groundwater storage in the southern San Joaquin Valley, California. Water Resour Res 53:2133–2148
Stull R (1988) Introduction to boundary layer meteorology. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht
Su Z (2002) The Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) for estimation of turbulent heat fluxes. Hydrol Earth Sys Sci 6:85–99
Swain DL, Langenbrunner B, Neelin JD, Hall A (2018) Increasing precipitation volatility in twenty-first-century California. Nat Clim Chang 8:427–433
Tanner CB, Thurtell G (1969) Anemoclinometer measurements of Reynolds stress and heat transport in the atmospheric surface layer. Research and Development Technical Report to US Army Electronic Command, ECOM 66-G22-F. Department of Soil Sciences, University of Wisconsin
Taylor GI (1938) The spectrum of turbulence. Proc R Soc London A 164:476–490
US Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service (2020) Quick Stats Database. http://www.nass.usda.gov/ca. Accessed 1 July 2021
US Department of the Treasury, Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (2017) Statistical report—wine. https://www.ttb.gov/wine/wine-stats.shtml. Accessed 1 July 2021
van Mantgem PJ, Nesmith JCB, Keifer MB, Knapp EE, Flint AL, Flint LE (2013) Climatic stress increases forest fire severity across the western United States. Ecol Lett 16:1151–1156
Wilson JD (2008) Monin-Obukhov functions for standard deviations of velocity. Bound-Layer Meteorol 129:353–369
Yahaya S, Frangi FP (2009) Profile of the horizontal wind variance near the ground in near neutral flow – K-theory and the transport of the turbulent kinetic energy. Ann Geophys 27:1843–1859
Zermeno-Gonzalez A, Hipps LE (1997) Downwind evolution of surface fluxes over a vegetated surface during local advection of heat and saturation deficit. J Hydrol 192:189–210
Zhan X, Kustas WP, Humes KS (1996) An Intercomparison study on models of sensible heat flux over partial canopy surfaces with remotely sensed surface temperature. Remote Sens Environ 58:242–256
Zhang Y, Liu H, Foken T, Williams QL, Shuhua L, Mauder M, Liebethal C (2010) Turbulence spectra and cospectra under the influence of large eddies in the Energy Balance Experiment (EBEX). Bound Layer Meteorol 136:235–251
Zhang Y, Liu H, Foken T, Williams QL, Mauder M, Thomas C (2011) Coherent structures and flux contribution over an inhomogeneously irrigated cotton field. Theor Appl Climatol 102:119–131
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the many researchers within the USDA and other governmental agencies, university collaborators, and industry partners who have contributed to the GRAPEX project. Specifically, the authors would like to thank E.&J. Gallo Winery for financial and logistical support and the staff of Viticulture, Chemistry, and Enology Division of E.&J. Gallo Winery for their assistance with data collection. The authors would also like to thank Mr. Ernie Dosio of Pacific Agri Lands Management and the vineyard staff at the Sierra Loma/McMannis Vineyard for their cooperation and support of this research. Finally, the authors would like to acknowledge financial support for this research from NASA [NNH16ZDA001N-WATER] and USDA. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all the authors, there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Alfieri, J.G., Kustas, W.P., Prueger, J.H. et al. The vertical turbulent structure within the surface boundary layer above a Vineyard in California’s Central Valley during GRAPEX. Irrig Sci 40, 481–496 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-022-00779-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-022-00779-x