Skip to main content

Brain Tumors: Types, Diagnostic Biomarkers, and New Therapeutic Approaches

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Oncobiology: From Basic to Clinical Sciences

Abstract

Brain tumors, both primary and secondary, are highly diverse and aggressive illnesses. The prognoses for these tumors are related to several factors, such as the age of the patient and the location and histology of the tumor. Unfortunately, we still lack effective treatments for most types of brain tumors. However, the past decade has witnessed an explosion in the understanding of the early molecular events in malignant primary brain tumors, and oncologists are seeking for new therapies targeting these molecular events and new methods for neuroradiological assessment are incorporated into both the diagnosis and follow-up processes. This book chapter will review the most common brain tumors with an emphasis on their diagnosis and oncologic management.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ahmed R, Oborski MJ, Hwang M, Lieberman FS, Mountz JM (2014) Malignant gliomas: current perspectives in diagnosis, treatment, and early response assessment using advanced quantitative imaging methods. Cancer Manag Res 6:149–170

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Aldape K, Brindle KM, Chesler L, Chopra R, Gajjar A, Gilbert MR et al (2019) Challenges to curing primary brain tumours. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 16(8):509–520

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Alhalaseh YN, Abdulelah ZA, Abu-Shanab A, Armouti AO, Amarin JZ, Mansour R, Al-Hussaini M (2021) Glioblastoma in adolescents and young adults: an age-based comparative study from Jordan over a 17-year period. Cancer Epidemiol 73:101948

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ballman KV (2015) Biomarker: predictive or prognostic? J Clin Oncol 33(33):3968–3971

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bapuraj JR, Moritani T, Naganawa S, Hiwatashi A, Becker C, Umemura Y, Kim MM (2021) Brain neoplasm. In: Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of the brain, head and neck, and spine. Springer Nature, pp 521–625

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Basile Carballo G, Ribeiro Honorato J, Farias de Lopes GP (2018) A highlight on sonic hedgehog pathway. Cell Commun Signal 16(1):1–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Bazzichetto C, Conciatori F, Pallocca M, Falcone I, Fanciulli M, Cognetti F, Ciuffreda L (2019) PTEN as a prognostic/predictive biomarker in cancer: an unfulfilled promise? Cancers 11(4):435

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boire A, Brandsma D, Brastianos PK, Le Rhun E, Ahluwalia M, Junck L, Soffietti R (2019) Liquid biopsy in central nervous system metastases: a RANO review and proposals for clinical applications. Neuro-Oncology 21(5):571–584

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Buerki RA, Horbinski CM, Kruser T, Horowitz PM, James CD, Lukas RV (2018) An overview of meningiomas. Future Oncol 14(21):2161–2177

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell BK, Gao Z, Corcoran NM, Stylli SS, Hovens CM (2022) Molecular mechanisms driving the formation of brain metastases. Cancers 14(19):4963

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Canale M, Andrikou K, Priano I, Cravero P, Pasini L, Urbini M, Ulivi P (2022) The role of TP53 mutations in EGFR-mutated non-small-cell lung cancer: clinical significance and implications for therapy. Cancers 14(5):1143

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chang LC, Chiang SK, Chen SE, Hung MC (2022) Targeting 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase for cancer treatment. Am J Cancer Res 12(4):1436

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cole KL, Kazim SF, Thommen R, Alvarez-Crespo DJ, Vellek J, Conlon M, Bowers CA (2022) Association of baseline frailty status and age with outcomes in patients undergoing intracranial meningioma surgery: results of a nationwide analysis of 5818 patients from the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) 2015–2019. Eur J Surg Oncol

    Google Scholar 

  • Dang CV (2012) MYC on the path to cancer. Cell 149(1):22–35

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • DeAngelis LM (2009) Side effects of radiation therapy. In: LM DA, Posner JB (eds) Neurologic complications of cancer. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 551–555

    Google Scholar 

  • Denysenko T, Annovazzi L, Cassoni P, Melcarne A, Mellai M, Schiffer D (2016) WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway and downstream modulators in low-and high-grade glioma. Cancer Genomics-Proteomics 13(1):31–45

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esteller M, Garcia-Foncillas J, Andion E, Esteller M, Garcia-Foncillas J, Andion E et al (2000) Inactivation of the DNArepair gene MGMT and the clinical response of gliomas to alkylating agents. N Engl J Med 343(19):1350–1354

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreyra Vega S, Wenger A, Kling T, Olsson Bontell T, Jakola AS, Carén H (2022) Spatial heterogeneity in DNA methylation and chromosomal alterations in diffuse gliomas and meningiomas. Mod Pathol 35(11):1551–1561

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Filley AC, Henriquez M, Dey M (2017) Recurrent glioma clinical trial, CheckMate-143: the game is not over yet. Oncotarget 8:91779–91794

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fousek K, Watanabe J, Joseph SK, George A, An X, Byrd TT, Morris JS, Luong A, Martínez-Paniagua MA, Sanber K, Navai SA, Gad AZ, Salsman VS, Mathew PR, Kim HN, Wagner DL, Brunetti L, Jang A, Baker ML, Varadarajan N, Hegde M, Kim YM, Heisterkamp N, Abdel-Azim H, Ahmed N (2021) CAR T-cells that target acute B-lineage leukemia irrespective of CD19 expression. Leukemia 35(1):75–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghaffari-Rafi A, Mehdizadeh R, Ko AW, Ghaffari-Rafi S, Leon-Rojas J (2021) Demographic and socioeconomic disparities of benign cerebral meningiomas in the United States. J Clin Neurosci 86:122–128

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez Castro LN, Milligan TA (2020) Seizures in patients with cancer. Cancer 126(7):1379–1389

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halima A, Mayo ZS, Jung EW, Ellithi M, Chao ST, Murphy ES, Suh JH (2022) Intracranial metastases. In: Handbook of neuro-oncology neuroimaging. Academic, pp 775–794

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hatch EE, Linet MS, Zhang J, Fine HA, Shapiro WR, Selker RG, Inskip PD (2005) Reproductive and hormonal factors and risk of brain tumors in adult females. Int J Cancer 114(5):797–805

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang SY, Yang JY (2015) Targeting the hedgehog pathway in pediatric medulloblastoma. Cancers 7(4):2110–2123

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hughesman CB, Lu XD, Liu KY, Zhu Y, Poh CF, Haynes C (2016) A robust protocol for using multiplexed droplet digital PCR to quantify somatic copy number alterations in clinical tissue specimens. PLoS One 11(8):676

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ihwan A, Rafika R, Cangara MH, Sjukur KJ, Faruk M (2022) Correlation between radiological images and histopathological type of meningioma: a cohort study. Ethiop J Health Sci 32(3)

    Google Scholar 

  • Immunotherapy Timeline of Progress (2019). https://www.cancerresearch.org/immunotherapy/timeline-of-progress

  • Jansen M, Yip S, Louis DN (2010) Molecular pathology in adult gliomas: diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive markers. Lancet Neurol US Natl Libr Med 9(7):717–726

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keskin DB, Anandappa AJ, Sun J, Tirosh I, Mathewson ND, Li S, Reardon DA (2019) Neoantigen vaccine generates intratumoral T cell responses in phase Ib glioblastoma trial. Nature 565(7738):234–239

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim HS, Kwon MJ, Song JH, Kim ES, Kim HY, Min KW (2018) Clinical implications of TERT promoter mutation on IDH mutation and MGMT promoter methylation in diffuse gliomas. Pathol Res Pract 214(6):881–888

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kodaz H, Kostek O, Hacioglu MB, Erdogan B, Kodaz CE, Hacibekiroglu I, Cicin I (2017) Frequency of RAS mutations (KRAS, NRAS, HRAS) in human solid cancer. Breast Cancer 7(12):1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Larkin J, Hodi FS, Wolchok JD (2015) Combined Nivolumab and Ipilimumab or monotherapy in untreated melanoma. N Engl J Med 373:1270–1271

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Law TM, Motzer RJ, Mazumdar M, Sell KW, Walther P, O’Connell M, Bajorin DF (1995) Phase iii randomized trial of interleukin-2 with or without lymphokine-activated killer cells in the treatment of patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma. Cancer 76(5):824–832

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Yen C, Liaw D, Podsypanina K, Bose S, Wang SI, Parsons R (1997) PTEN, a putative protein tyrosine phosphatase gene mutated in human brain, breast, and prostate cancer. Science 275(5308):1943–1947

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Litjens G, Kooi T, Bejnordi BE, Setio AA, Ciompi F, Ghafoorian M, Sánchez CI (2017) A survey on deep learning in medical image analysis. Med Image Anal 42:60–88

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu B, Bhatt D, Oltvai ZN, Greenberger JS, Bahar I (2014) Significance of p53 dynamics in regulating apoptosis in response to ionizing radiation, and polypharmacological strategies. Sci Rep 4(6245):1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Long KB, Young RM, Boesteanu AC, Davis MM, Melenhorst JJ, Lacey SF, Fraietta JA (2018) CAR T cell therapy of non-hematopoietic malignancies: detours on the road to clinical success. Front Immunol 3(9):2740

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Louis DN, Perry A, Reifenberger G, von Deimling A, Figarella-Branger D, Cavenee WK et al (2016) The 2016 World Health Organization classification of tumors of the central nervous system: a summary. Acta Neuropathol 131(6):803–820

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Louis DN, Perry A, Wesseling P, Brat DJ, Cree IA, Figarella-Branger D, Hawkins C, Ng HK, Pfister SM, Reifenberger G, Soffietti R, von Deimling A, Ellison DW (2021) The 2021 WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: a summary. Neuro Oncol 23(8):1231–1251

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas CH, Sloan EA, Gupta R, Wu J, Pratt D, Vasudevan HN, Solomon DA (2022) Multiplatform molecular analyses refine classification of gliomas arising in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1. Acta Neuropathol 144(4):747–765

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mafi A, Rahmati A, Babaei Aghdam Z, Salami R, Salami M, Vakili O, Aghadavod E (2022) Recent insights into the microRNA-dependent modulation of gliomas from pathogenesis to diagnosis and treatment. Cell Mol Biol Lett 27(1):1–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mansouri A, Hachem LD, Mansouri S, Nassiri F, Laperriere NJ, Xia D, Zadeh G (2019) MGMT promoter methylation status testing to guide therapy for glioblastoma: refining the approach based on emerging evidence and current challenges. Neuro-Oncology 21(2):167–178

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maraka S, Janku F (2018) BRAF alterations in primary brain tumors. Discov Med 26(141):51–60

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maurya SK, Khan P, Rehman AU, Kanchan RK, Perumal N, Mahapatra S, Nasser MW (2021) Rethinking the chemokine cascade in brain metastasis: preventive and therapeutic implications. In: Seminars in cancer biology. Academic

    Google Scholar 

  • McNeill KA (2016) Epidemiology of brain tumors. Neurol Clin 34(4):981–998

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milella M, Falcone I, Conciatori F, Cesta Incani U, Del Curatolo A, Inzerilli N, Ciuffreda L (2015) PTEN: multiple functions in human malignant tumors. Front Oncol 5:24

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Montano N, D’Alessandris QG, Izzo A, Fernandez E, Pallini R (2016) Biomarkers for glioblastoma multiforme: status quo. J Clin Transl Res 2(1):3–10

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moskalenko M, Robin TP (2021) Narrative review of immune checkpoint inhibitors and radiation therapy for brain metastases. Transl Cancer Res 10(5):2527

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad LJ, Badi I, Haruna AA, Mohammed IA, Dada OS (2022) Deep learning models for classification of brain tumor with magnetic resonance imaging images dataset. In: Computational intelligence in oncology. Springer, Singapore, pp 159–176

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Müller Bark J, Kulasinghe A, Chua B, Day BW, Punyadeera C (2020) Circulating biomarkers in patients with glioblastoma. Br J Cancer 122(3):295–305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nandakumar P, Mansouri A, Das S (2017) The role of ATRX in glioma biology. Front Oncol 7:236

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nandu H, Wen PY, Huang RY (2018) Imaging in neuro-oncology. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 11:1756286418759865

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nawaz Z, Patil V, Thinagararjan S, Rao SA, Hegde AS, Arivazhagan A, Somasundaram K (2017) Impact of somatic copy number alterations on the glioblastoma mi RN ome: miR-4484 is a genomically deleted tumour suppressor. Molecular Oncol 11(8):927–944

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nayak L, Lee EQ, Wen PY (2012) Epidemiology of brain metastases. Curr Oncol Rep 14:48–54

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neufeld G, Cohen T, Gengrinovitch S, Poltorak Z (1999) Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors. FASEB J 13(1):9–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nonaka H, Akima M, Hatori T, Nagayama T, Zhang Z, Ihara F (2003) The microvascular of the cerebral white matter: arteries of the subcortical white matter. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 62:154–161

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norman S, Juthani RG, Magge R (2022) Foundations of the diagnosis and management of low-grade gliomas. World Neurosurg 166:306–312

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oji Y, Hashimoto N, Tsuboi A, Murakami Y, Iwai M, Kagawa N et al (2016) Association of WT1 IgG antibody against WT1 peptide with prolonged survival in glioblastoma multiforme patients vaccinated with WT1 peptide. Int J Cancer 139:1391–1401

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • O’Rourke DM, Nasrallah MP, Desai A, Melenhorst JJ, Mansfield K, Morrissette JJ et al (2017) A single dose of peripherally infused EGFRvIII-directed CAR T cells mediates antigen loss and induces adaptive resistance in patients with recurrent glioblastoma. Sci Transl Med 9:eaaa0984

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Osei E, Walters P, Masella O, Tennant Q, Fishwick A, Dadzie E, Darko J (2021) A review of predictive, prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers for brain tumours: towards personalised and targeted cancer therapy. J Radiother Pract 20(1):83–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrom QT, Gittleman H, Xu J, Kromer C, Wolinsky Y, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan JS (2016) CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2009–2013. Neuro-Oncology 18(5):1–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Pantanowitz L, Chivukula M (2022) Serous fluid: metastatic sarcomas, melanoma, and other non-epithelial neoplasms. Cyto J 19

    Google Scholar 

  • Patel AP, Tirosh I, Trombetta JJ, Shalek AK, Gillespie SM et al (2014) Single-cell RNA-seq highlights intratumoral heterogeneity in primary glioblastoma. Science 344(6190):1396–1401

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paul I, Bhattacharya S, Chatterjee A, Bhattacharya S, Chatterjee A, Ghosh MK (2013) Current understanding on EGFR and Wnt/β-catenin signaling in glioma and their possible crosstalk. Genes Cancer 4(11–12):427–446

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pellerino A, Caccese M, Padovan M, Cerretti G, Lombardi G (2022) Epidemiology, risk factors, and prognostic factors of gliomas. Clin Transl Imaging:1–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Petrescu GE, Sabo AA, Torsin LI, Calin GA, Dragomir MP (2019) MicroRNA based theranostics for brain cancer: basic principles. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 38(1):1–21

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pettersson-Segerlind J, Fletcher-Sandersjöö A, von Vogelsang AC, Persson O, Kihlström Burenstam Linder L et al (2022) Long-term follow-up, treatment strategies, functional outcome, and health-related quality of life after surgery for WHO grade 2 and 3 intracranial meningiomas. Cancers 14(20):5038

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pichaivel M, Anbumani G, Theivendren P, Gopal M (2022) An overview of brain tumor. Brain Tumors 1

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole CJ, van Riggelen J (2017) MYC–master regulator of the cancer epigenome and transcriptome. Genes 8(5):142

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rampling R, Peoples S, Mulholland PJ, James A, Al-Salihi O, Twelves CJ et al (2016) A cancer research UK first time in human phase I trial of IMA950 (novel multipeptide therapeutic vaccine) in patients with newly diagnosed glioblastoma. Clin Cancer Res 22(19):4776–4785

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Reardon DA, Gokhale PC, Klein SR, Ligon KL, Rodig SJ, Ramkissoon SH et al (2016) Glioblastoma eradication following immune checkpoint blockade in an orthotopic, immunocompetent model. Cancer Immunol Res 4:124–135

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rickman DS, Schulte JH, Eilers M (2018) The expanding world of N-MYCdriven tumours. Cancer Discov 8(2):150–163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg SA, Dudley ME (2004) Cancer regression in patients with metastatic melanoma after the transfer of autologous antitumor lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:14639–14645

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sachdev D, Yee D (2007) Disrupting insulin-like growth factor signaling as a potential cancer therapy. Mol Cancer Ther 6:1–12

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Safwan-Zaiter H, Wagner N, Wagner KD (2022) P16INK4A—more than a senescence marker. Life 12(9):1332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sampson JH, Heimberger AB, Archer GE, Aldape KD, Friedman AH, Friedman HS et al (2010) Immunologic escape after prolonged progression-free survival with epidermal growth factor receptor variant III peptide vaccination in patients with newly diagnosed glioblastoma. J Clin Oncol 28:4722–4729

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz M, Temme A, Senner V, Ebner R, Schwind S, Stevanovic S et al (2007) Identification of SOX2 as a novel glioma-associated antigen and potential target for T cell-based immunotherapy. Br J Cancer 96(8):1293–1301

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schuessler A, Smith C, Beagley L, Boyle GM, Rehan S, Matthews K et al (2014) Autologous T-cell therapy for cytomegalovirus as a consolidative treatment for recurrent glioblastoma. Cancer Res 74:3466–3476

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shi R, Zhou X, Pang L, Wang M, Li Y, Chen C, Gao Y (2022) Peptide vaccine from cancer-testis antigen ODF2 can potentiate the cytotoxic T lymphocyte infiltration through IL-15 in non-MSI-H colorectal cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother:1–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Shih F, Yip S, McDonald PJ, Chudley AE, Del Bigio MR (2014) Oncogenic codon 13 NRAS mutation in a primary mesenchymal brain neoplasm and nevus of a child with neurocutaneous melanosis. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2(1):14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel Rebecca L, Miller Kimberly D, Ahmedin J (2019) Cancer statistics, 2019. CA Cancer J Clin 69(1):7–34

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson A, Petnga W, Macaulay VM, Weyer-Czernilofsky U, Bogenrieder T (2017) Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) pathway targeting in cancer: role of the IGF axis and opportunities for future combination studies. Target Oncol 12(5):571–597

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Steeg PS (2021) The blood–tumour barrier in cancer biology and therapy. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 18(11):696–714

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stupp R, Tonn JC, Brada M, Pentheroudakis G (2010) High-grade malignant glioma: ESMO clinical practice guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol 21:190–193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sultan HH, Salem NM, Al-Atabany W (2019) Multi-classification of brain tumor images using deep neural network. IEEE Access 7:69215–69225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tawbi HA, Forsyth PA, Algazi A, Hamid O, Hodi FS, Moschos SJ et al (2018) Combined nivolumab and ipilimumab in melanoma metastatic to the brain. N Engl J Med 379(8):722–730

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • US National Library of Medicine (2015). ClinicalTrials.gov, https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT02617589

  • US National Library of Medicine (2016a). ClinicalTrials.gov, https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT02667587

  • US National Library of Medicine (2016b). ClinicalTrials.gov, https://ClinicalTrials.gov/show/NCT02661282

  • Weller M, Roth P, Preusser M, Wick W, Reardon DA, Platten M, Sampson JH (2017) Vaccine-based immunotherapeutic approaches to gliomas and beyond. Nat Rev Neurol 13(6):363–374

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westermann F, Muth D, Benner A, Bauer T, Henrich KO, Oberthuer A et al (2008) Distinct transcriptional MYCN/c-MYC activities are associated with spontaneous regression or malignant progression in neuroblastomas. Genome Biol 9(10):150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiemels J, Wrensch M, Claus EB (2010) Epidemiology and etiology of meningioma. J Neuro-Oncol 99(3):307–314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilmotte R, Burkhardt K, Kindler V, Belkouch MC, Dussex G, de Tribolet N et al (2005) B7-homolog 1 expression by human glioma: a new mechanism of immune evasion. Neuroreport 16(10):1081–1085

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xie Y, Zaccagna F, Rundo L, Testa C, Agati R, Lodi R, Tonon C (2022) Convolutional neural network techniques for brain tumor classification (from 2015 to 2022): review, challenges, and future perspectives. Diagnostics 12(8):1850

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yang H, Ye D, Guan KL, Xiong Y (2012) IDH1 and IDH2 mutations in tumorigenesis: mechanistic insights and clinical perspectives. Clin Cancer Res 18(20):5562–5571

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yapijakis C, Adamopoulou M, Tasiouka K, Voumvourakis C, Stranjalis G (2016) Mutation screening of her2, N-ras and Nf1 genes in brain tumor biopsies. Anticancer Res 36(9):4607–4611

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zorofchian S, Iqbal F, Rao M, Aung PP, Esquenazi Y, Ballester LY (2019) Circulating tumour DNA, microRNA and metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid as biomarkers for central nervous system malignancies. J Clin Pathol 72(4):271–280

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuccarini M, Giuliani P, Ziberi S, Carluccio M, Di Iorio P, Caciagli F, Ciccarelli R (2018) The role of WNT signal in glioblastoma development and progression: a possible new pharmacological target for the therapy of this tumor. Genes 9(2):105

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Osama M. Ahmed .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Section Editor information

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Zaky, M.Y., Lamloum, N.S., Yassin, N.Y.S., Ahmed, O.M. (2024). Brain Tumors: Types, Diagnostic Biomarkers, and New Therapeutic Approaches. In: Sobti, R.C., Ganguly, N.K., Kumar, R. (eds) Handbook of Oncobiology: From Basic to Clinical Sciences. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6263-1_21

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics