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Deprivation of Liberty of Children

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International Human Rights of Children

Part of the book series: International Human Rights ((IHR))

Abstract

International children’s rights law is utterly clear. The use of deprivation of liberty of children must be limited to the absolute minimum. If it is nevertheless regarded necessary to arrest, detain, imprison, or institutionalize a child, states have the obligation to safeguard that her or his rights are recognized and adequately protected, regardless of the context in which the deprivation of liberty takes place. This chapter elaborates on the specifics of these two limbs of Article 37 CRC, the core human rights provision for the protection of children deprived of liberty. It analyzes the legal status these children are entitled to, specifies the corresponding negative and positive obligations for states, and explores avenues for an effective implementation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    unless stated otherwise, “he” also refers to “she”.

  2. 2.

    This study has been commissioned by the UN Secretary-General on the basis of a resolution of the UN General Assembly (UN General Assembly 2015. The study aims to get a better understanding of the number of children affected by deprivation of liberty across the world as well as of the conditions under which children are deprived of their liberty; it is led by independent expert Manfred Nowak.

  3. 3.

    Similar definitions were later incorporated in the Optional Protocol to the UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (OPCAT, Art. 4(2)) and the European Rules for Juvenile Offenders Subject to Sanctions Or Measures (Council of Europe 2009, rule 21.5.

  4. 4.

    See also Inter-American Commission of Human Rights which defines deprivation of liberty in a similar way as “[a]ny form of detention, imprisonment, institutionalization, or custody of a person in a public or private institution which that person is not permitted to leave at will, by order of or under de facto control of a judicial, administrative or any other authority, for reasons of humanitarian assistance, treatment, guardianship, protection, or because of crimes or legal offenses” (Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2011, para. 38). According to the Commission, “[t]his category of persons includes not only those deprived of their liberty because of crimes or infringements or non compliance with the law, whether they are accused or convicted, but also those persons who are under the custody and supervision of certain institutions, such as: psychiatric hospitals and other establishments for persons with physical, mental, or sensory disabilities; institutions for children and the elderly; centers for migrants, refugees, asylum or refugee status seekers, stateless and undocumented persons; and any other similar institution the purpose of which is to deprive persons of their liberty” (Ibid.).

  5. 5.

    Examples of limitations of movement (under Art. 2 of the Fourth Protocol to the ECHR) include the curfew, the duty to report to the police and inform the police about whereabouts, restraining orders or instruction to refrain from certain behavior (Trechsel 2005, p. 413; see also De Tommaso v. Italy [GC] (2017) and Human Rights Committee, 2014. Cf. EU Court of Justice, 28 July 2016, C-294/16 PPU.

  6. 6.

    The prohibition of unlawful and arbitrary deprivation of liberty can be found in the general international and regional human rights treaties; see Art. 9 (1) ICCPR, Art. 7 (2) and (3) ACHR, Art. 6 Banjul Charter, and Art. 5 (1) ECHR. The prohibition of arbitrariness cannot be found explicitly in Art. 5 ECHR but is implied; see Trechsel 2005. Art. 37 (b) CRC has been based on Art. 9 (1) ICCPR; Detrick 1999, p. 629.

  7. 7.

    See, e.g. Blokhin v. Russia [GC] 2016; Bouamar v. Belgium 1988. The Inter-American Commission and Court have dealt with several cases outside of the criminal justice context, i.e., deprivation of liberty in airports, military bases, psychiatric hospitals, and orphanages; see Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2011.

  8. 8.

    This list makes clear that alternatives could also be made available outside of the context of the juvenile justice system, e.g., through diversion to the child welfare system.

  9. 9.

    Centre for Child Law v Minister for Justice and Constitutional Development and Others (CCT98/08) [2009] ZACC 18, para. 43 and. 9; see also para. 31.

  10. 10.

    It is interesting to point at the developments regarding life imprisonment (without parole) in the USA where there is a clear movement toward recognizing that the use of imprisonment with regard to children should be based on an individualized sentence, while recognizing that children are different from adults; see, e.g., Kilkelly 2016; Scott et al. 2016.

  11. 11.

    It should be noted that the dividing line between violation of Art. 37 (a) and (c) CRC is not very clear; the same is true for the distinction between Art. 7 and 10(1) ICCPR; Liefaard 2008, p. 596; Nowak 2005; Schabas and Sax 2006.

  12. 12.

    See further the Council of Europe’s Guidelines on child-friendly justice, in particular “Section IV. Child-friendly justice before, during and after judicial proceedings”; see further Liefaard et al. 2016; Rap and Liefaard 2017

  13. 13.

    The ECtHR made clear that years in strict isolation, combined with poor prison conditions such as an unheated cell and deprivation of food, amounts to torture and inhuman and degrading treatment (Ilascu and Others v. Moldova and Russia 2004). Piechowicz v. Poland and Horych v. Poland (2012) concerned the detention under a strict regime, with restrictions on visits, without sufficient mental and physical stimulation and without examining if there were concrete reasons for the prolonged application of that regime. This regime, which continued for several years, was also considered in breach of Article 3 ECHR by the ECtHR. The ECtHR does not require the absolute isolation of a prisoner for a situation to become in breach of Article 3 ECHR. A lack of communication facilities and difficulties for visitors to gain access to the prison may be enough to amount to a social isolation in violation of Article 3 ECHR (Ocalan v. Turkey (no. 2) 2014).

  14. 14.

    Although it also aims to safeguard child-specific treatment requiring child-specific facilities with specialized staff, among others, Liefaard 2008, p. 259ff

  15. 15.

    See further Liefaard 2008, p. 263. In the context of juvenile justice, it can be argued that a child who turns 18, while he finds himself in an institution as part of an intervention (pretrial or post-conviction) for a crime committed before he turned 18, remains entitled to be treated under the protection of the CRC. The CRC Committee has not yet clarified its position in this regard.

  16. 16.

    See, e.g. 2015 Nelson Mandela Rules advocating for separation as far as possible and the CPT standards addressing “women deprived of their liberty” as a separate category requiring separate accommodations, CPT 2000

  17. 17.

    Dutch law for children deprived of liberty in youth custodial institutions explicitly provides that they have the right to request an alternative placement or lodge a complaint against certain placement before the competent authority; see Liefaard 2008, p. 541ff

  18. 18.

    Barriers generally relate to the complexity of justice systems and the fact that children may be unaware of their rights; justice mechanisms may not be child-specific or child-friendly, discriminatory toward children, unsafe for children, intimidating, or stigmatizing (UN Human Rights Council 2013, para. 15), and cultural and social norms can stand in the way of accepting that children lodge complaints and claim redress or in recognizing that the rights of children are violated (UN Human Rights Council 2013, para. 15; see also UNICEF 2015, p. 80ff.); children often face legal barriers, such as the lack of legal capacity to access to justice and ability to seek remedies, and practical barriers, such as costs of proceedings, lack of free legal assistance, or physical distance to courts or other authorities (UN Human Rights Council 2013, para. 16)

  19. 19.

    Among others, the guidelines include recommendations to guarantee information on “existing mechanisms for review of decisions affecting the child” and to “obtain reparation from the offender or from the state through the justice process, alternative civil proceedings or through other processes” (Guidelines on child-friendly justice, under IV.A.1.1.i and IV.A.1.1.j, resp.).

  20. 20.

    See UN Human Rights Council 2013, para. 21ff

  21. 21.

    (See rule 76 Havana Rules and the European rules for juvenile offenders; see also Guidelines on child-friendly justice, under IV.D.4.50; rule 57 of the Nelson Mandela Rules gives further guidance and provides a possibility to approach a judicial or other authority in case of rejection of the complaint or in the event of undue delay

  22. 22.

    Confidentiality is considered crucial, particularly in case of allegations of serious forms of ill-treatment (Murdoch and Jiricka 2015, pp. 73–74), but also in light of particular dependency and vulnerability of children and the risk of retaliation, intimidation, or other negative consequences of having submitted a request or complaint (see rule 57 Nelson Mandela Rules)

  23. 23.

    Children deprived of their liberty should be able to lodge a complaint “without censorship as to substance” (rule 76 Havana Rules)

  24. 24.

    See, e.g. Guidelines on child-friendly justice, under IV.D.2.44; see also CRC Committee 2009

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Leiden Law School, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Ton Liefaard

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  1. Ton Liefaard
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  1. Department of Law, University College Cork Department of Law, Cork, Ireland

    Ursula Kilkelly

  2. Kamerlingh Onnes Building, Leiden Law School Kamerlingh Onnes Building, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Ton Liefaard

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Liefaard, T. (2018). Deprivation of Liberty of Children. In: Kilkelly, U., Liefaard, T. (eds) International Human Rights of Children. International Human Rights. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3182-3_15-2

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    Deprivation of Liberty of Children
    Published:
    26 July 2018

    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3182-3_15-2

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    Deprivation of Liberty of Children
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    DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3182-3_15-1

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