Introduction
Religion is an ideology, meaning “… that part of culture which is actively concerned with the establishment and defense of patterns of beliefs and values” (Geertz, 1964, p. 64). But it is clearly different, in the nature of its claims, from all other ideologies we know, such as leftwing or right-wing world views in politics. Religion as an ideology involves the individual in a unique commitment and a unique network of relationships, real and imagined. The irreducible belief core common to all religions contains the belief in spirit entities inhabiting an invisible world, and our relationship with them (Beit-Hallahmi, 1989). The working definition of religion used here is the straightforward everyday description of religion as a system of beliefs in divine or superhuman powers, and ritual practices directed towards such powers (Argyle & Beit-Hallahmi, 1975).
It is the premise of every religion—and this premise is religion’s defining characteristic—that souls, supernatural...
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Alland, A., Jr (1962). Possession in a revivalistic Negro church. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 1, 204–213.
Anderson, J. (1993). Out of the kitchen, out of the temple: Religion, atheism and women in the Soviet Union. In S. P. Ramet (Ed.), Religious policy in the Soviet Union (pp. 206–230). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Argyle, M. (1958). Religious behaviour. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Argyle, M., & Beit-Hallahmi, B. (1975). The social psychology of religion. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Back, C. W., & Bourque, L. B. (1970). Can feelings be enumerated? Behavioral Science, 15, 487–496.
Barfoot, C. H., & Sheppard, G. T. (1980). Prophetic vs. priestly religion: the changing role of women clergy in classical Pentecostal churches. Review of Religious Research, 22, 2–17.
Barry, H., Bacon, M. K., & Child, I. L. (1957). A cross-cultural study of sex differences in socialization. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55, 327–332.
Beit-Hallahmi, B. (1989). Prolegomena to the psychological study of religion. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.
Beit-Hallahmi, B. (1997). Biology, destiny and change: Women’s religiosity and economic development. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 153, 166–178.
Beit-Hallahmi, B., & Argyle, M. (1997). The psychology of religious behaviour, belief, and experience. London: Routledge.
Belle, D. (1982). The stress of caring:Women as providers of social support. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress:Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 496–505). New York: Free Press.
Block, J. (1976). Issues, problems, and pitfalls in assessing sex differences. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 22, 283–308.
Block, J., & Robins, R. W. (1993). A longitudinal study of consistency and change in self-esteem from early adolescence to early adulthood. Child Development, 64, 909–923.
Buddenbaum, J. (1981). Characteristics and media related needs of the audience for religious television. Journalism Quarterly, 58, 266–272.
Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., Neckerman, H. J., Ferguson, L. L., & Gariety, J. L. (1989). Growth and aggression: Childhood to early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 25, 320–330.
Carroll, M. P. (1979). The sex of our gods. Ethos, 7, 37–50.
Colquhoun, F. (1955). Harringay story. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Cross, W. (1965). The burned-over district. New York: Harper.
Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1983). Sex, evolution, and behavior. Boston: Willard Grant Press.
D’Andrade, R. G. (1967). Sex differences and cultural institutions. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.) (pp. 174–204). The development of sex differences. London: Tavistock Press.
de Beauvoir, S. (1949). Le deuxieme sexe. Paris: Gallimard.
DeConchy, J. P. (1968). God and parental images: The masculine and feminine in religious free associations. In A. Godin (Ed.), From cry to word. Brussels: Lumen-Vitae.
Depression Guideline Panel. (1993). Depression in primary care: Vol. 1. Diagnosis and detection. Rockville, MD: Department of Health and Human Services.
de Vaus, D. A. (1984). Workforce participation and sex differences in church attendance. Review of Religious Research, 25, 247–256.
de Vaus, D., & McAllister, I. (1987). Gender differences in religion: A test of the structural location theory. American Sociological Review, 52, 472–481.
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Eagly, A. H. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. American Psychologist, 50, 145–158.
Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1986). Gender and aggressive behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 303–330.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1989). Human ethology. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Emmons, C. F., & Sobal, J. (1981). Paranormal beliefs: Testing the marginality hypothesis. Sociological Focus, 14, 49–56.
Fichter, J. H. (1952). The profile of Catholic religious life. American Journal of Sociology, 58, 145–149.
Firth, S. (1997). Dying, death and bereavement in a Hindu community. Leuven, The Netherlands: Peeters.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping behavior in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219–239.
Francis, L. J. (1991). The personality characteristics of Anglican ordinands: Feminine men and masculine women? Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 1133–1140.
Gallup, G. H. (1977). The Gallup poll. New York: Random House.
Gallup, G. H. (1980). Index to international public opinion. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Gallup, G., & Castelli, J. (1989). The people’s religion. London: Collier Macmillan.
Gallup, G., Jr., & Lindsay, D. M. (1999). Surveying the religious landscape—Trends in U.S. beliefs. Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse.
Garai, J. E., & Scheinfeld, A. (1968). Sex differences in mental and behavioral traits. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 77, 169–299.
Geary, D. C. (1998). Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gee, E. M. (1991). Gender differences in church attendance in Canada: The role of labor force participation. Review of Religious Research, 32, 267–273.
Geertz, C. (1964). Ideology as a cultural system. In D. E. Apter (Ed.), Ideology and discontent. New York: Free Press.
Gerard, D. (1985). Religious attitudes and values. In M. Abrams, D. Gerard, & N. Timms (Eds.), Values and social change in Britain. London: Macmillan.
Gibson-Cline, J. (Ed.). (1996). Adolescence: From crisis to coping—A thirteen nation study. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
Gorer, G. (1955). Exploring English character. London: Cresset.
Gray, J. A. (1971). Sex differences in emotional behaviour in mammals including man: Endocrine basis. Acta Psychologica, 35, 29–46.
Hay, D. (1982). Exploring inner space. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Hertel, B. R. (1988). Gender, religious identity and work force participation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 27, 574–592.
Hoffman, M. L. (1977). Sex differences in empathy and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 712–722.
Hollinger, F., & Smith, T. B. (2002). Religion and esotericism among students: A cross-cultural comparative study. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 17, 229–249.
Hood, R. W., & Hall, J. R. (1980). Gender differences in the description of erotic and mystical experiences. Review of Religious Research, 21, 195–207.
Ilfeld, F. W. (1980 June). Coping styles of Chicago adults: Description. Journal of Human Stress, 6, 2–10.
James, W. (1956). The will to believe. New York: Dover. (Original work published 1897.)
Kaldor, P., et al. (1994). Winds of change. Homebush West, NSW, Australia: Anzea.
Kaplan, M. (1983). A woman’s view of DSM-III. American Psychologist, 38, 786–792.
Lenski, G. (1953). Social correlates of religious interest. American Sociological Review, 18, 533–544.
Lerner, G. (1986). The creation of patriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Loewenthal, K. M., MacLeod, A. K., & Cinnirella, M. (2002). Are women more religious than men? Evidence from a short measure of religious activity applicable in different religious groups in the UK. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 133–139.
Loftus, J. A., & Camargo, R. J. (1993). Treating the clergy. Annals of Sex Research, 6, 287–303.
Long, B. C. (1990). Relation between coping strategies, sex-type traits, and environmental characteristics: A comparison of male and female managers. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 185–194.
Luckmann, T. (1967). The invisible religion. New York: Macmillan.
Maccoby, E. E. (1988). Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology, 24, 755–765.
Maccoby, E., & Jacklin, C. (1974). The psychology of sex differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Markle, G. E., Petersen, J. C., & Wagenfeld, M. O. (1978). Notes from the cancer underground: Participation in the Laetrile movement. Social Science and Medicine, 12, 31–57.
McGrath, E., Keita, G. P., Strickland, B., & Russo, N. F. (1990). Women and depression: Risk factors and treatment issues. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
McGuiness, D. (1993). Gender differences in cognitive style: Implications for mathematics performance and achievement. In L. A. Penner, G. M. Batche, H. M. Knoff, & D. L. Nelson (Eds.), The challenge of mathematics and science education: Psychology’s response. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
McQuarrie, E., Kramer, M., & Bonnet, M. (1980). Sex differences in dream content. Sleep Research, 9, 156–160.
Mercer, C., & Durham, T. W. (1999). Religious mysticism and gender orientation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 38, 175–182.
Miller, A. S., & Hoffmann, J. P. (1995). Risk and religion: An exploration of gender differences in religiosity. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 34, 63–75.
Miller, J. B. (1986). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon.
Moberg, D. O. (1962). The church as a social institution. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Moffitt, A. R., Kramer, M., & Hoffmann, R. F. (Eds.). (1993). The unctions of dreaming. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behaviour. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Needham, R. (1972). Belief, language and experience. Oxford: Blackwell.
Nelsen, H. M., Cheek, N. H., & Hau, P. (1985). Gender differences in images of God. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 24, 396–402.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Sex differences in depression. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Gender differences in coping with depression across the lifespan. Depression, 3, 81–90.
Opie, I. (1993). The people in the playground. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pearlin, L. I., & Schooler, C. (1978). The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19, 2–21.
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., & Stallworth, L. M. (1993). Sexual selection and the sexual and ethnic basis of social hierarchy. In L. Ellis (Ed.), Social stratification and socioeconomic inequality: Vol. 1. A comparative biosocial analysis. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R. E., & Zanas, J. (1992). Gender, appraisal and coping: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality, 60, 747–770.
Rees, D. G. (1967). Denominational concepts of God. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, University of Liverpool, UK.
Rohner, R. P. (1976). Sex differences in aggression: Phylogenetic and enculturation perspectives. Ethos, 4, 57–72.
Sipe, A. W. R. (1990). A secret world: Sexuality and the search for celibacy. New York: Brunner-Mazel.
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Stark, R. (2002). Physiology and faith: Addressing the “universal” gender difference in religious commitment. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 495–507.
Steggarda, M. (1993). Religion and the social positions of women and men. Social Compass, 65, 73.
Suziedalis, A., & Potvin, R. H. (1981). Sex differences in factors affecting religiousness among Catholic adolescents. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 20, 38–51.
Tamminen, K. (1994). Religious experiences in childhood and adolescence: A viewpoint of religious development between the ages of 7 and 20. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 4, 61–85.
Thompson, E. H. (1991). Beneath the status characteristic: Gender variations in religiousness. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30, 381–394.
Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play: Girls and boys in school. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Turner, H. A. (1994). Gender and social support: Taking the bad with the good? Sex Roles, 30, 521–541.
Wallace, A. F. C. (1966). Religion: An anthropological view. New York: Random House.
Weber, M. (1968). Economy and society. New York: Bedminster.
White, S., McAllister, I., & Kryshtanovskaya, O. (1994). Religion and politics in postcommunist Russia. Religion, State and Society, 22, 73–88.
Wilson, B. R. (1961). Sects and society. London: Heinemann.
Wolf, J. G. (Ed.). (1989). Gay priests. New York; HarperCollins.
Wondimu, H., Beit-Hallahmi, B., & Abbink, J. (2001). Ethnic identity, stereotypes, and psychological modernity in Ethiopian young adults: Identifying the potential for change. Amsterdam: KIT.
Wright, D. (1971). The psychology of moral behaviour. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Wright, D., & Cox, E. (1967). A study of the relationship between moral judgment and religious belief in a sample of British adolescents. Journal of Social Psychology, 72, 135–144.
Wuthnow, R. (1976). Astrology and marginality. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 15, 157–168.
Yeaman, P. A. (1987). Prophetic voices: Differences between men and women. Review of Religious Research, 28, 367–376.
Yinger, J. M. (1970). The scientific study of religion. London: Collier Macmillan.
Zeidner, M., & Beit-Hallahmi, B. (1988). Sex, ethnic, and social class differences in parareligious beliefs among Israeli adolescents. Journal of Social Psychology, 128, 333–343.
Zulehner, P., & Denz, H. (1993). Wie Europa lebt und glaubt. Dusseldorf, Germany: Patmos.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers
About this entry
Cite this entry
Beit-Hallahmi, B. (2003). Religion, Religiosity, and Gender. In: Ember, C.R., Ember, M. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29907-6_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29907-6_12
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-0-306-47770-6
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-29907-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive