Abstract
Over the past several decades, empirical and theoretical work has focused on the question of whether it is possible to purposefully improve cognitive functioning through behavioral interventions. Accordingly, a field is emerging around cognitive training, be it through executive function training, video game play, music training, aerobic exercise, or mindfulness meditation. One concern that has been raised regarding the results of this field centers on the potential impact of participants’ expectations. Suggestions have been raised that participants may, at least in some cases, show improvements in performance because they expect to improve, rather than because of any mechanisms inherent in the behavioral interventions per se. The present paper discusses the latest views on expectations and the new methodological challenges they raise when considering the effectiveness of behavioral interventions on human behavior, and in particular cognition.
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Notes
In the scope of this article, we will use the terms efficacy and effectiveness as defined in the dictionary of epidemiology (Last et al. 2001): Efficacy refers to the extent to which a specific intervention is beneficial under ideal conditions. Effectiveness is a measure of the extent to which a specific intervention when deployed in the field in routine care does what it is intended to do for a specific population.
Note that our goal in doing so is not to compare the potential real-world significance of effects in different domains. Rather, by considering cognitive training interventions alongside medical trials such as those for pain, our aim is to highlight potential lessons from these medical domains that the cognitive training literature can build on.
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This article received no funding. Ulrike Bingel reports funding by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) – Project-ID 422744262 – TRR 289, for a grant on treatment expectations.
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A first draft of the manuscript was generated by S.D. and L.S.; the second draft was generated by S.D., D.B., and C.S.G, which was then reviewed and commented on by all other co-authors.
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Denkinger, S., Spano, L., Bingel, U. et al. Assessing the Impact of Expectations in Cognitive Training and Beyond. J Cogn Enhanc 5, 502–518 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-021-00206-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-021-00206-7