Abstract
Purpose of Review
While several hundred thousand species of insects, mammals, and birds rely on flowers for food or reproduction, a surprising dearth of literature focuses specifically on floral resources. An understanding of floral resource availability is particularly necessary in urban areas, which have recently been proposed as important habitat for declining pollinator populations. In this study, we aim to synthesize existing information and provide new insights about the effects of land use and land cover (LULC) change and urbanization on the distribution, diversity, and abundance of floral resources.
Recent Findings
Our results suggest that certain LULC types provide more floral resources than others. In particular, urban lands may have higher floral density than agricultural or natural lands. However, we also observed inconsistent findings between studies, and the relationship between urbanization and floral resource availability may vary by city, with this variation possibly due in part to city size, LULC composition, regional biome, and biases in sampling.
Summary
It appears that cities have the potential to provide an important source of floral resources. However, a complete understanding of the effects of urbanization on floral resources requires that landscape composition and heterogeneity be taken into account. We recommend that more studies estimate floral resource availability at a landscape scale by combining data about LULC composition with data about floral resource availability within various LULC types. These studies should focus specifically on flower communities and be conducted along a full urban-rural gradient.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Erin Freed, Ileana Gallo and Renee Ramos for their assistance in reviewing studies for this paper. Additionally, we appreciate the conceptual feedback provided by Amélie Davis during the early stages of this project.
Funding
This research was partially supported by NSF grant 1911327 and a UIC LAS Mid-Career Award, both awarded to ESM.
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Contributions
LL and EM conceived of the presented idea. LL, MK, NB, AD, KS, PJ, and EM read and summarized the papers about floral resources; LL, NB, AD, KS, and PJ extracted and calculated floral density values from the papers. MG identified, read, and summarized the papers about LULC change along an urban-rural gradient, and calculated the landscape-level floral resources along that gradient. PJ and MG created the figures. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
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This article is part of the Topical Collection on Urban Landscape Ecology
Appendices
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Full citation | Continent | Category 1 paper?1 | Category 2 paper?2 | Category 3 paper?3 | Gradient location | LULC Types Considered | Flower Density (Floral Units/m2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adedoja, O., & Kehinde, T. 2018. Changes in interaction network topology and species composition of flower-visiting insects across three land use types. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 56(4, SI), 964–971. | Africa | No | Yes | No | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Agriculture (crops), Forest, Grassland | NA |
Adhikari, S. L. A. Burkle, K. M. O. Neill, D. K. Weaver, C. M. Delphia, and F. D. Menalled. 2019. Dryland Organic Farming Partially Offsets Negative Effects of Highly Simplified Agricultural Landscapes on Forbs, Bees, and Bee-Flower Networks. Environmental entomology 48:826–835. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops) | NA |
Adhikari, S., L. A. Burkle, K. M. O. Neill, D. K. Weaver, and F. D. Menalled. 2019. Agriculture , Ecosystems and Environment. Dryland organic farming increases floral resources and bee colony success in highly simplified agricultural landscapes. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 270–271:9–18. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (orchard), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Alonso, C., Arceo-Gomez, G., Meindl, G. A., Abdala-Roberts, L., Parra-Tabla, V., & Ashman, T.-L. 2017. Delimiting plant diversity that is functionally related via interactions with diurnal pollinators: An expanded use of rarefaction curves. FLORA, 232, 56–62. | Europe, North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland, Other Natural | NA |
Amélie Y. Davis, Eric V. Lonsdorf, Cliff R. Shierk, Kevin C. Matteson, John R. Taylor, Sarah T. Lovell, Emily S. Minor. 2017. Enhancing pollination supply in an urban ecosystem through landscape modifications. Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 162, 157-166 | North America | No | No | Yes | Urban | Residential, Urban Parks, Urban Agriculture | NA |
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Baldock, K. C. R., Goddard, M. A., Hicks, D. M., Kunin, W. E., Mitschunas, N., Morse, H., … Memmott, J. 2019. A systems approach reveals urban pollinator hotspots and conservation opportunities. NATURE ECOLOGY & EVOLUTION, 3(3), 363+ | Europe | No | Yes | Yes | Urban | Residential, Urban Parks, Other Urban, Roadsides | Residential: 34.36; Urban Parks: 11.21; Roadside: 11.43; Other Urban: 7.64 |
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Bartual, A. M., L. Sutter, G. Bocci, A. C. Moonen, J. Cresswell, M. Entling, B. Giffard, K. Jacot, P. Jeanneret, J. Holland, S. Pfister, O. Pintér, E. Veromann, K. Winkler, and M. Albrecht. 2019. The potential of different semi-natural habitats to sustain pollinators and natural enemies in European agricultural landscapes. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 279:43–52 | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Baude, M., Kunin, W. E., Boatman, N. D., Conyers, S., Davies, N., Gillespie, M. A. K., … Memmott, J. 2016. Historical nectar assessment reveals the fall and rise of floral resources in Britain. NATURE, 530(7588), 85+. | Europe | No | No | Yes | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard), Forest, Grassland, Other Natural | NA |
Bendel, C. R., Hovick, T. J., Limb, R. F., & Harmon, J. P. 2018. Variation in grazing management practices supports diverse butterfly communities across grassland working landscapes. JOURNAL OF INSECT CONSERVATION, 22(1), 99–111. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land), Grassland | NA |
Bendel, C. R., Kral-O’Brien, K. C., Hovick, T. J., Limb, R. F., & Harmon, J. P. 2019. Plant-pollinator networks in grassland working landscapes reveal seasonal shifts in network structure and composition. ECOSPHERE, 10(1). | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land) | NA |
Berkley, N. A. J., Hanley, M. E., Boden, R., Owen, R. S., Holmes, J. H., Critchley, R. D., … Parmesan, C. 2018. Influence of bioenergy crops on pollinator activity varies with crop type and distance. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY BIOENERGY, 10(12), 960–971. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Birdshire, K. R., Carper, A. L., & Briles, C. E. 2020. Bee community response to local and landscape factors along an urban-rural gradient. URBAN ECOSYSTEMS. | North America | Yes | Yes | No | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Residential, Urban Park, Other Urban | NA |
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Buckles, B. J., & Harmon-Threatt, A. N. 2019. Bee diversity in tallgrass prairies affected by management and its effects on above- and below-ground resources. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY, 56(11), 2443–2453. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land), Grassland | NA |
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Carlos, E. H., Weston, M. A., & Gibson, M. 2017. Avian responses to an emergent, wetland weed. AUSTRAL ECOLOGY, 42(3), 277–287. | Austrailia | No | Yes | No | Suburban | Other Natural | NA |
Carman, K., & Jenkins, D. G. 2016. Comparing diversity to flower-bee interaction networks reveals unsuccessful foraging of native bees in disturbed habitats. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 202, 110–118. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Other Natural | NA |
Carrie, R., Ekroos, J., & Smith, H. G. 2018. Organic farming supports spatiotemporal stability in species richness of bumblebees and butterflies. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 227, 48–55. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (non-cultivated), Grassland | NA |
Castro-Urgal, R., & Traveset, A. 2016. Contrasting Partners’ Traits of Generalized and Specialized Species in Flower-Visitation Networks. PLOS ONE, 11(3). | Europe, Africa | No | Yes | No | Semi-Urban | Other Natural | NA |
Choate, B. A., Hickman, P. L., & Moretti, E. A. 2018. Wild bee species abundance and richness across an urban-rural gradient. JOURNAL OF INSECT CONSERVATION, 22(3–4), 391–403. | North America | Yes | Yes | No | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Urban Parks, Other Urban | NA |
Cole, L. J., Brocklehurst, S., Robertson, D., Harrison, W., & McCracken, D. I. 2015. Riparian buffer strips: Their role in the conservation of insect pollinators in intensive grassland systems. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 211, 207–220. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Colwell, M. J., Williams, G. R., Evans, R. C., & Shutler, D. 2017. Honey bee-collected pollen in agro-ecosystems reveals diet diversity, diet quality, and pesticide exposure. ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION, 7(18), 7243–7253. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard), Forest, Grassland | NA |
Coulin, C., Aizen, M. A., & Garibaldi, L. A. 2019. Contrasting responses of plants and pollinators to woodland disturbance. AUSTRAL ECOLOGY, 44(6), 1040–1051. | South America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Other Natural | NA |
Crone, E. E., & Williams, N. M. 2016. Bumble bee colony dynamics: quantifying the importance of land use and floral resources for colony growth and queen production. ECOLOGY LETTERS, 19(4), 460–468. | North America | No | No | Yes | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Dalmazzo, M., & Gerardo Vossler, F. 2015. Pollen host selection by a broadly polylectic halictid bee in relation to resource availability. ARTHROPOD-PLANT INTERACTIONS, 9(3), 253–262. | South America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest | NA |
Davidson, K. E., Fowler, M. S., Skov, M. W., Forman, D., Alison, J., Botham, M., … Griffin, J. N. 2020. Grazing reduces bee abundance and diversity in saltmarshes by suppressing flowering of key plant species. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 291. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land) | NA |
de Deus, F. F., & Oliveira, P. E. 2016. Changes in floristic composition and pollination systems in a ``Cerrado” community after 20 years of fire suppression. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY, 39(4), 1051–1063. | South America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest, Other Natural | NA |
de Vere, N., Jones, L. E., Gilmore, T., Moscrop, J., Lowe, A., Smith, D., Hegarty, M. J., Creer, S., & Ford, C. R. 2017. Using DNA metabarcoding to investigate honey bee foraging reveals limited flower use despite high floral availability. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS, 7. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland, Other Natural | NA |
DeBano, S. J., Roof, S. M., Rowland, M. M., & Smith, L. A. 2016. Diet Overlap of Mammalian Herbivores and Native Bees: Implications for Managing Co-occurring Grazers and Pollinators. NATURAL AREAS JOURNAL, 36(4), 458–477. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest | NA |
Delaney, J. T., Jokela, K. J., & Debinski, D. M. 2015. Seasonal succession of pollinator floral resources in four types of grasslands. ECOSPHERE, 6(11). | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land), Grassland | Agriculture (grazed land): 3.42; Grassland: 4.32 |
Denning, K. R., & Foster, B. L. 2018. Taxon-specific associations of tallgrass prairie flower visitors with site-scale forb communities and landscape composition and configuration. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 227, 74–81. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
DiCarlo, L. A. S., DeBano, S. J., & Burrows, S. 2020. Arid grassland bee communities: associated environmental variables and responses to restoration. RESTORATION ECOLOGY. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
Djelloul, B. 2018. Understanding of the impact of the types of livestock on the steppe training systems. UKRAINIAN JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 8(4), 46–53. | Africa | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land) | NA |
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Eeraerts, M., Smagghe, G., & Meeus, I. 2019. Pollinator diversity, floral resources and semi-natural habitat, instead of honey bees and intensive agriculture, enhance pollination service to sweet cherry. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 284. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (orchard), Agriculture (non-cultivated), Roadside, Forest, Grassland | NA |
Erenler, H. E., Orr, M. C., Gillman, M. P., Parkes, B. R. B., Rymer, H., & Maes, J.-M. 2016. Persistent nesting by Anthophora Latreille, 1803 (Hymenoptera: Apidae) bees in ash adjacent to an active volcano. PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST, 92(2), 67–78. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Other Natural | NA |
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Grass, I., Albrecht, J., Jauker, F., Diekoetter, T., Warzecha, D., Wolters, V., & Farwig, N. 2016. Much more than bees-Wildflower plantings support highly diverse flower-visitor communities from complex to structurally simple agricultural landscapes. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 225, 45–53. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Forest, Grassland | NA |
Graves, R. A., Pearson, S. M., & Turner, M. G. 2017. Landscape dynamics of floral resources affect the supply of a biodiversity-dependent cultural ecosystem service. LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY, 32(2), 415–428. | North America | Yes | Yes | yes | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Agriculture (grazed land), Forest | Agriculture (grazed land): 6.59; Forest: 0.84 |
Gutierrez-Chacon, C., Dorman, C. F., & Klein, A.-M. 2018. Forest-edge associated bees benefit from the proportion of tropical forest regardless of its edge length. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 220, 149–160. | South America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land), Forest | NA |
Halbritter, D. A., Daniels, J. C., Whitaker, D. C., & Huang, L. 2015. Reducing mowing frequency increases floral resource and butterfly (Lepidoptera: Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea) abundance in managed roadside margins. FLORIDA ENTOMOLOGIST, 98(4), 1081–1092. | North America | No | Yes | No | Urban | Roadside | 11.76 |
Hamblin, A. L., Youngsteadt, E., & Frank, S. D. 2018. Wild bee abundance declines with urban warming, regardless of floral density. URBAN ECOSYSTEMS, 21(3), 419–428. | North America | No | Yes | No | Suburban | Residential, Grassland | NA |
Hanley, M. E., Awbi, A. J., & Franco, M. 2014. Going native? Flower use by bumblebees in English urban gardens. ANNALS OF BOTANY, 113(5), 799–806. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Urban | Residential | NA |
Hanson, T., & Ascher, J. S. 2018. An unusually large nesting aggregation of the digger bee Anthophora bomboides Kirby, 1838 (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in the San Juan Islands, Washington State. PAN-PACIFIC ENTOMOLOGIST, 94(1), 4–16. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Other Natural | NA |
Happe, A.-K., Riesch, F., Roesch, V., Galle, R., Tscharntke, T., & Batary, P. 2018. Small-scale agricultural landscapes and organic management support wild bee communities of cereal field boundaries. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 254, 92–98. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Hardman, C. J., Norris, K., Nevard, T. D., Hughes, B., & Potts, S. G. 2016. Delivery of floral resources and pollination services on farmland under three different wildlife-friendly schemes. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 220, 142–151. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (grazed land) | NA |
Hawkins, B. A., Thomson, J. R., & Mac Nally, R. 2018. Regional patterns of nectar availability in subtropical eastern Australia. LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY, 33(6), 999–1012. | Australia | No | Yes | No | Semi-Urban, Rural | Residential, Forest | NA |
Heil, L. J., & Burkle, L. A. 2018. Recent post-wildfire salvage logging benefits local and landscape floral and bee communities. FOREST ECOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT, 424, 267–275 | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest | 8.56 |
Herbertsson, L., Lindstrom, S. A. M., Rundlof, M., Bornmarco, R., & Smith, H. G. 2016. Competition between managed honeybees and wild bumblebees depends on landscape context. BASIC AND APPLIED ECOLOGY, 17(7), 609–616. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Howell, A. D., Alarcon, R., & Minckley, R. L. 2017. Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on the Nesting Dynamics of Desert Bees. ANNALS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 110(2), 233–243. | North America | No | Yes | No | Urban | Other urban | NA |
Huelsmann, M., von Wehrden, H., Klein, A.-M., & Leonhardt, S. D. 2015. Plant diversity and composition compensate for negative effects of urbanization on foraging bumble bees. APIDOLOGIE, 46(6), 760–770. | Europe | Yes | No | No | Rural, Urban | Agriculture (crops), Grassland | NA |
Johansen, L. q, Westin, A., Wehn, S., Iuga, A., Ivascu, C. M., Kallioniemi, E., & Lennartsson, T. 2019. Traditional semi-natural grassland management with heterogeneous mowing times enhances flower resources for pollinators in agricultural landscapes. GLOBAL ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION, 18. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
Kallioniemi, E., Astrom, J., Rusch, G. M., Dahle, S., Astrom, S., & Gjershaug, J. O. 2017. Local resources, linear elements and mass-flowering crops determine bumblebee occurrences in moderately intensified farmlands. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 239, 90–100. | Europe | No | Yes | Yes | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard) | NA |
Kaluza, B. F., Wallace, H. M., Heard, T. A., Minden, V., Klein, A., & Leonhardt, S. D. 2018. Social bees are fitter in more biodiverse environments. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS, 8. | Australia | No | Yes | No | Semi-Urban, Rural | Residential, Agriculture (orchard), Forest | NA |
Khan, A. M., Qureshi, R., Arshad, M., & Mirza, S. N. 2018. CLIMATIC AND FLOWERING PHENOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS OF WESTERN HIMALAYAN FLORA OF MUZAFFARABAD DISTRICT, AZAD JAMMU AND KASHMIR, PAKISTAN. PAKISTAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY, 50(3), 1093–1112. | Asia | No | Yes | No | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Residential, Other Urban, Agriculture (crops), Roadside, Forest, Grassland, Other Natural | NA |
Knapp, J. L., Shaw, R. F., & Osborne, J. L. 2019. Pollinator visitation to mass-flowering courgette and co-flowering wild flowers: Implications for pollination and bee conservation on farms. BASIC AND APPLIED ECOLOGY, 34, 85–94. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | Agriculture (crops): 2.92; Agriculture (non-cultivated): 6.46 |
Korpela, E.-L., Hyvonen, T., & Kuussaari, M. 2015. Logging in boreal field-forest ecotones promotes flower-visiting insect diversity and modifies insect community composition. INSECT CONSERVATION AND DIVERSITY, 8(2), 152–162. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Timber Stand, Forest | NA |
Kral-O’Brie, K. C., Limb, Y. F., Hovick, T. J., & Harmon, J. P. 2019. Compositional Shifts in Forb and Butterfly Communities Associated with Kentucky Bluegrass Invasions. RANGELAND ECOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, 72(2), 301–309. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
Kratschmer, S., Kriechbaum, M., & Pachinger, B. 2018. Buzzing on top: Linking wild bee diversity, abundance and traits with green roof qualities. URBAN ECOSYSTEMS, 21(3), 429–446. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Urban | Other Urban | NA |
Kratschmer, S., Pachinger, B., Schwantzer, M., Paredes, D., Guernion, M., Burel, F., … Winter, S. 2018. Tillage intensity or landscape features: What matters most for wild bee diversity in vineyards? AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 266, 142–152. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (orchard), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Kruse, M., Stein-Bachinger, K., Gottwald, F., Schmidt, E., & Heinken, T. 2016. Influence of grassland management on the biodiversity of plants and butterflies on organic suckler cow farms. TUEXENIA, 36, 97–119. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land), Grassland | Agriculture (grazed land): 3.4; Grassland: 1.3 |
Lanner, J, S Kratschmer, B Petrovic, F Gaulhofer, H Meimberg, and B Pachinger. 2019. City dwelling wild bees: how communal gardens promote species richness. Urban Ecosystems (Early Access) | Europe | No | Yes | No | Urban | Urban Agriculture | NA |
Lanterman, J., & Goodell, K. 2018. Bumble bee colony growth and reproduction on reclaimed surface coal mines. RESTORATION ECOLOGY, 26(1), 183–194. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest, Grassland | NA |
Lebeau, J., Wesselingh, R. A., & Van Dyck, H. 2017. Flower use of the butterfly Maniola jurtina in nectar-rich and nectar-poor grasslands: a nectar generalist with a strong preference? INSECT CONSERVATION AND DIVERSITY, 10(3), 258–270. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | 16.2 |
Lerman, S. B., & Milam, J. 2016. Bee Fauna and Floral Abundance Within Lawn-Dominated Suburban Yards in Springfield, MA. ANNALS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 109(5), 713–723. | North America | No | Yes | No | Suburban | Residential | NA |
Lerman, S. B., Contosta, A. R., Milam, J., & Bang, C. 2018. To mow or to mow less: Lawn mowing frequency affects bee abundance and diversity in suburban yards. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 221, 160–174. | North America | No | Yes | No | Suburban | Residential | 3.15 |
Lowenstein, D. M., & Minor, E. S. 2016. Diversity in flowering plants and their characteristics: integrating humans as a driver of urban floral resources. URBAN ECOSYSTEMS, 19(4), 1735–1748. | North America | Yes | No | No | Urban | Residential | 2.27 |
Lowenstein, D. M., Matteson, K. C., & Minor, E. S. 2015. Diversity of wild bees supports pollination services in an urbanized landscape. OECOLOGIA, 179(3), 811–821. | North America | No | Yes | No | Urban | Residential | 7.15 |
Lowenstein, D. M., Matteson, K. C., & Minor, E. S. 2019. Evaluating the dependence of urban pollinators on ornamental, non-native, and `weedy’ floral resources. URBAN ECOSYSTEMS, 22(2), 293–302. | North America | No | Yes | No | Urban | Residential | NA |
Lucas, A., Bodger, O., Brosi, B. J., Ford, C. R., Forman, D. W., Greig, C., … de Vere, N. 2018. Generalisation and specialisation in hoverfly (Syrphidae) grassland pollen transport networks revealed by DNA metabarcoding. JOURNAL OF ANIMAL ECOLOGY, 87(4, SI), 1008–1021. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | 6.5 |
Lucas, A., Bull, J. C., de Vere, N., Neyland, P. J., & Forman, D. W. 2017. Flower resource and land management drives hoverfly communities and bee abundance in seminatural and agricultural grasslands. ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION, 7(19), 8073–8086. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland, Agriculture (non-cultivated) | Agriculture (non-cultivated): 1.74; Grassland: 3.69 |
Malfi, R. L., Walter, J. A., Roulston, T. H., Stuligross, C., McIntosh, S., & Bauer, L. 2018. The influence of conopid flies on bumble bee colony productivity under different food resource conditions. ECOLOGICAL MONOGRAPHS, 88(4), 653–671. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
Mallinger, R. E., Gibbs, J., & Gratton, C. 2016. Diverse landscapes have a higher abundance and species richness of spring wild bees by providing complementary floral resources over bees’ foraging periods. LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY, 31(7), 1523–1535. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops) | Agriculture (crops): 0.0275; Agriculture (orchard): 7.63; Forest: 2.93; Grassland: 0.42 |
Martins, K. T., Albert, C. H., Lechowicz, M. J., & Gonzalez, A. 2018. Complementary crops and landscape features sustain wild bee communities. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 28(4), 1093–1105. | North America | No | No | Yes | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Agriculture (orchard) | NA |
Martins, K. T., Gonzalez, A., & Lechowicz, M. J. 2017. Patterns of pollinator turnover and increasing diversity associated with urban habitats. URBAN ECOSYSTEMS, 20(6), 1359–1371. | North America | Yes | Yes | No | Semi-Urban, Rural | Residential, Grassland | NA |
Melin, A., Rouget, M., Colville, J. F., Midgley, J. J., & Donaldson, J. S. 2018. Assessing the role of dispersed floral resources for managed bees in providing supporting ecosystem services for crop pollination. PEERJ, 6. | Africa | No | No | Yes | Rural | Residential, Other Urban, Agriculture (crops), Grassland | NA |
Milam, J. C., Litvaitis, J. A., Warren, A., Keirstead, D., & King, D. I. 2018. Bee Assemblages in Managed Early-successional Habitats in Southeastern New Hampshire. NORTHEASTERN NATURALIST, 25(3), 437–459. | North America | No | Yes | No | Exurban | Grassland, Forest | NA |
Mizunaga, Y., & Kudo, G. 2017. A linkage between flowering phenology and fruit-set success of alpine plant communities with reference to the seasonality and pollination effectiveness of bees and flies. OECOLOGIA, 185(3), 453–464. | Asia | No | Yes | No | Rural | Other Natural | NA |
Morales, H., Ferguson, B. G., Marin, L. E., Navarrete Gutierrez, D., Bichier, P., & Philpott, S. M. 2018. Agroecological Pest Management in the City: Experiences from California and Chiapas. SUSTAINABILITY, 10(6). | North America | No | Yes | No | Urban | Urban Agriculture | NA |
Moron, D., Skorka, P., & Lenda, M. 2019. Disappearing edge: the flowering period changes the distribution of insect pollinators in invasive goldenrod patches. INSECT CONSERVATION AND DIVERSITY, 12(2), 98–108. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated), Grassland | NA |
Morrison, J., Izquierdo, J., Hernandez Plaza, E., & Gonzalez-Andujar, J. L. 2017. The role of field margins in supporting wild bees in Mediterranean cereal agroecosystems: Which biotic and abiotic factors are important? AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 247, 216–224. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated) | 329.52 |
Nel, L., Pryke, J. S., Carvalheiro, L. G., Thebault, E., van Veen, F. J. F., & Seymour, C. L. 2017. Exotic plants growing in crop field margins provide little support to mango crop flower visitors. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 250, 72–80. | Africa | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (orchard) | NA |
Nery, L. S., Takata, J. T., Camargo, B. B., Chaves, A. M., Ferreira, P. A., & Boscolo, D. 2018. Bee diversity responses to forest and open areas in heterogeneous Atlantic Forest. SOCIOBIOLOGY, 65(4, SI), 686–695. | South America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest | NA |
Nery, L. S., Takata, J. T., Camargo, B. B., Chaves, A. M., Ferreira, P. A., & Boscolo, D. 2018. Bee diversity responses to forest and open areas in heterogeneous Atlantic Forest. SOCIOBIOLOGY, 65(4, SI), 686–695. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Other Natural | NA |
Norfolk, O., Eichhorn, M. P., & Gilbert, F. 2016. Flowering ground vegetation benefits wild pollinators and fruit set of almond within arid smallholder orchards. INSECT CONSERVATION AND DIVERSITY, 9(3), 236–243. | Africa | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (orchard) | NA |
Nuernberger, F., Haertel, S., & Steffan-Dewenter, I. 2019. Seasonal timing in honey bee colonies: phenology shifts affect honey stores and varroa infestation levels. OECOLOGIA, 189(4), 1121–1131. | Europe | No | Yes | Yes | Semi-Urban, Rural | Other Urban, Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard), Agriculutre (non-cultivated), Timber Stand, Roadside, Forest, Grassland | NA |
Nuernberger, F., Keller, A., Haertel, S., & Steffan-Dewenter, I. 2019. Honey bee waggle dance communication increases diversity of pollen diets in intensively managed agricultural landscapes. MOLECULAR ECOLOGY, 28(15), 3602–3611. | Europe | No | No | Yes | Rural | Agriculture (crops) | NA |
Nuernberger, F., Steffan-Dewenter, I., & Haertel, S. 2017. Combined effects of waggle dance communication and landscape heterogeneity on nectar and pollen uptake in honey bee colonies. PEERJ, 5. | Europe | No | Yes | Yes | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard), Agriculture (non-cultivated), Grassland | NA |
Ouvrard, P., & Jacquemart, A.-L. 2018. Agri-environment schemes targeting farmland bird populations also provide food for pollinating insects. AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST ENTOMOLOGY, 20(4), 558–574. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated) | 17.76 |
Pane, A. M., & Harmon-Threatt, A. N. 2017. AN ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFICACY AND PEAK CATCH RATES OF EMERGENCE TENTS FOR MEASURING BEE NESTING. APPLICATIONS IN PLANT SCIENCES, 5(6). | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
Pfeiffer, V., Silbernagel, J., Guedot, C., & Zalapa, J. 2019. Woodland and floral richness boost bumble bee density in cranberry resource pulse landscapes. LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY, 34(5, SI), 979–996. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Forest, Grassland, Other Natural | NA |
Pfister, S. C., Schirmel, J., & Entling, M. H. 2017. Aphids and their enemies in pumpkin respond differently to management, local and landscape features. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL, 115, 37–45. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Phillips, B. B., Gaston, K. J., Bullock, J. M., & Osborne, J. L. 2019. Road verges support pollinators in agricultural landscapes, but are diminished by heavy traffic and summer cutting. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY, 56(10), 2316–2327. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (grazed land), Roadside | Agriculture (non-cultivated): 8.37; Roadsides: 3.87 |
Power, E. F., Jackson, Z., & Stout, J. C. 2016. Organic farming and landscape factors affect abundance and richness of hoverflies (Diptera, Syrphidae) in grasslands. INSECT CONSERVATION AND DIVERSITY, 9(3), 244–253. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Other Urban, Agriculture (grazed land), Grassland, Other Natural | NA |
Rosanigo, M. P., Marrero, H. J., & Torretta, J. P. 2020. Limiting resources on the reproductive success of a cavity-nesting bee species in a grassland agroecosystem. JOURNAL OF APICULTURAL RESEARCH. | South America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Forest, Grassland | NA |
Rubene, D, M Schroeder, T Ranius. 2017. Effectiveness of local conservation management is affected by landscape properties: Species richness and composition of saproxylic beetles in boreal forest clearcuts. Forest Ecology and Management 399: 54-63 | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest | NA |
Rubene, D., Schroeder, M., & Ranius, T. 2015. Diversity patterns of wild bees and wasps in managed boreal forests: Effects of spatial structure, local habitat and surrounding landscape. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, 184, 201–208. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Timber Stand, Forest | NA |
Sajjad, A., Ali, M., & Saeed, S. 2017. Yearlong association of Apis dorsata and Apis florea with flowering plants: planted forest vs. agricultural landscape. SOCIOBIOLOGY, 64(1), 18–25. | Asia | No | Yes | No | Semi-Urban | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard), Forest | NA |
Saravia-Nava, A., Niemeyer, H. M., & Pinto, C. F. 2018. Pollen Types Used by the Native Stingless Bee, Tetragonisca angustula (Latreille), in an Amazon-Chiquitano Transitional Forest of Bolivia. NEOTROPICAL ENTOMOLOGY, 47(6), 798–807. | South America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest | NA |
Sardinas, H. S., Tom, K., Ponisio, L. C., Rominger, A., & Kremen, C. 2016. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) pollination in California’s Central Valley is limited by native bee nest site location. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS, 26(2), 438–447. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops) | NA |
Scheper, J., Bommarco, R., Holzschuh, A., Potts, S. G., Riedinger, V., Roberts, S. P. M., Rundlof, M., Smith, H. G., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Wickens, J. B., Wickens, V. J., & Kleijn, D. 2015. Local and landscape-level floral resources explain effects of wildflower strips on wild bees across four European countries. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY, 52(5), 1165–1175. | Europe | No | No | Yes | Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Simba, L. D., Foord, S. H., Thebault, E., van Veen, F. J. F., Joseph, G. S., & Seymour, C. L. 2018. Indirect interactions between crops and natural vegetation through flower visitors: the importance of temporal as well as spatial spillover. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 253, 148–156. | Africa | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Smith, I. M., Hoffmann, A. A., & Thomson, L. J. 2015. Ground cover and floral resources in shelterbelts increase the abundance of beneficial hymenopteran families. AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST ENTOMOLOGY, 17(2), 120–128. | Australia | No | Yes | No | Urban, Rural | Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Souza, C. S., Maruyama, P. K., Aoki, C., Sigrist, M. R., Raizer, J., Gross, C. L., & de Araujo, A. C. 2018. Temporal variation in plant-pollinator networks from seasonal tropical environments: Higher specialization when resources are scarce. JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY, 106(6), 2409–2420. | South America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest, Other Natural | NA |
Stefanescu, C, X Puig-Montserrat, B Samraoui, R Izquierdo and A Ubach. 2017. Back to Africa: autumn migration of the painted lady butterfly Vanessa cardui is timed to coincide with an increase in resource availability. Ecological Entomology 42(6): 737-747. | Africa | No | Yes | No | Rural, Semi-Urban | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard), Forest, Other Natural | NA |
Stewart, A. B., Sritongchuay, T., Teartisup, P., Kaewsomboon, S., & Bumrungsri, S. 2018. Habitat and landscape factors influence pollinators in a tropical megacity, Bangkok, Thailand. PEERJ, 6. | Asia | No | Yes | No | Urban | Urban Parks, Other Urban | NA |
Stivers, E. K., Wittman, J. T., & Larsen, K. J. 2019. A COMPARISON OF ADULT BUTTERFLY COMMUNITIES ON REMNANT AND PLANTED PRAIRIES IN NORTHEAST IOWA. JOURNAL OF THE LEPIDOPTERISTS SOCIETY, 73(4), 268–274. | North America | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
Szigeti, V., Korosi, A., Harnos, A., Nagy, J., & Kis, J. 2016. Comparing two methods for estimating floral resource availability for insect pollinators in semi-natural habitats. ANNALES DE LA SOCIETE ENTOMOLOGIQUE DE FRANCE, 52(5), 289–299. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
Tangtorwongsakul, P., Warrit, N., & Gale, G. A. 2018. Effects of landscape cover and local habitat characteristics on visiting bees in tropical orchards. AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST ENTOMOLOGY, 20(1), 28–40. | Asia | No | Yes | No | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Agriculture (orchard) | NA |
Theodorou, P., Albig, K., Radzeviciute, R., Settele, J., Schweiger, O., Murray, T. E., & Paxton, R. J. 2017. The structure of flower visitor networks in relation to pollination across an agricultural to urban gradient. FUNCTIONAL ECOLOGY, 31(4), 838–847. | Europe | Yes | No | No | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Other Urban, Agriculture (crops) | NA |
Theodorou, P., Radzeviciute, R., Settele, J., Schweiger, O., Murray, T. E., & Paxton, R. J. 2016. Pollination services enhanced with urbanization despite increasing pollinator parasitism. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY B-BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, 283(1833). | Europe | No | Yes | No | Urban, Semi-Urban, Rural | Other Urban, Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (orchard), Roadside, Other Natural | NA |
Timberlake, T. P., Vaughan, I. P., & Memmott, J. 2019. Phenology of farmland floral resources reveals seasonal gaps in nectar availability for bumblebees. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY, 56(7), 1585–1596. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (grazed land) | NA |
Trillo, A., Montero-Castano, A., Gonzalez-Varo, J. P., Gonzalez-Moreno, P., Javier Ortiz-Sanchez, F., & Vila, M. 2019. Contrasting occurrence patterns of managed and native bumblebees in natural habitats across a greenhouse landscape gradient. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 272, 230–236. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Forest, Other Natural | NA |
Tschumi, M., Albrecht, M., Baertschi, C., Collatz, J., Entling, M. H., & Jacot, K. 2016. Perennial, species-rich wildflower strips enhance pest control and crop yield. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 220, 97–103. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops) | 31.9 |
van Klink, R., Nolte, S., Mandema, F. S., Lagendijk, D. D. G., WallisDeVries, M. F., Bakker, J. P., Esselink, P., & Smit, C. 2016. Effects of grazing management on biodiversity across trophic levels-The importance of livestock species and stocking density in salt marshes. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 235, 329–339. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (grazed land) | NA |
Van Reeth, C., Caro, G., Bockstaller, C., & Michel, N. 2018. Current and previous spatial distributions of oilseed rape fields influence the abundance and the body size of a solitary wild bee, Andrena cineraria, in permanent grasslands. PLOS ONE, 13(5). | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | 15.07 |
Van Reeth, C., Michel, N., Bockstaller, C., & Caro, G. 2019. Influences of oilseed rape area and aggregation on pollinator abundance and reproductive success of a co-flowering wild plant. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 280, 35–42. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
Vialatte, A., Tsafack, N., Al Hassan, D., Duflot, R., Plantegenest, M., Ouin, A., … Ernoult, A. 2017. Landscape potential for pollen provisioning for beneficial insects favours biological control in crop fields. LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY, 32(3), 465–480. | Europe | No | Yes | yes | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Villa, M., Somavilla, I., Santos, S. A. P., Antonio Lopez-Saez, J., & Alberto Pereira, J. 2019. Pollen feeding habits of Chrysoperla carnea s.l. adults in the olive grove agroecosystem. AGRICULTURE ECOSYSTEMS & ENVIRONMENT, 283. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Agriculture (crops), Agriculture (non-cultivated) | NA |
Vrdoljak, S. M., Samways, M. J., & Simaika, J. P. 2016. Pollinator conservation at the local scale: flower density, diversity and community structure increase flower visiting insect activity to mixed floral stands. JOURNAL OF INSECT CONSERVATION, 20(4), 711–721. | Africa | No | Yes | No | Rural | Other Natural | NA |
Wehn, S., Westin, A., Johansen, L., Iuga, A., Ivascu, C. M., Kallioniemi, E., & Lennartsson, T. 2019. Data on flower resources for pollinators in Romanian semi-natural grasslands mown at different times. DATA IN BRIEF, 25. | Europe | No | Yes | No | Rural | Grassland | NA |
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Appendix 3
Description of Three Cities Used to Scale Floral Density Up to the Landscape Scale
New York City is a city of 18 million people in the temperate forest biome of the northeastern United States. It was established in 1624. In the Medley et al. [16] study, the rural portion of the 140 km urban-rural transect is dominated by deciduous forests and has less than 20% agricultural land use in most places. Phoenix is a city of 1.7 million people in the Sonoran Desert of the southwestern United States. It was established in 1881. In the urban-rural transect in this city, agricultural land cover peaks at approximately 40 km from the urban center, but desert becomes the dominant land cover at farther distances [17]. Xiamen City is a city of 3.5 million people located on the subtropical southeastern coast of China and was established in 1394. In the study by Lin et al. [18], the urban-rural transect is shorter than the other two papers and only extends 40 km from the city center. The far suburbs (30-40 km from the city center) are dominated by residential and urban land covers but have approximately 20% and 16% of forest and agricultural land cover, respectively.
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Lynch, L., Kangas, M., Ballut, N. et al. Changes in Land Use and Land Cover Along an Urban-Rural Gradient Influence Floral Resource Availability. Curr Landscape Ecol Rep 6, 46–70 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40823-021-00064-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40823-021-00064-1