Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Multimodal Executive Function Measurement in Preschool Children Born Very Low Birth Weight and Full Term: Relationships Between Formal Lab-Based Measure Performance, Parent Report, and Naturalistic Observational Coding

  • Published:
Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this study was to compare executive function (EF) in preschoolers born very low birth weight (VLBW ≤ 1500 g) and full term (FT) using performance measures of EF, parent report of EF, and naturalistic child behaviors. Examining the relationship between multimodal measures of EF may elucidate the interrelations between EF measurement methods. Participants included 61 preschoolers born VLBW and 40 born FT between the ages of 3 and 4.5 years. Performance measures of EF (Bear Dragon, Dimensional Change Card Sort-Separated Dimensions (DCCSS), Gift Peek, and Gift Touch), parent report of EF (BRIEF-P), and naturalistic child behaviors (NICHD Cleanup Child Defiant Noncompliance) were utilized. FT preschoolers showed superior EF over VLBW preschoolers across all types of EF measures. These differences remained after correcting for age, maternal education, and WPPSI-III FSIQ. While performance measures of EF correlated highly in both FT and VLBW groups, different patterns by birth weight group emerged with parent report and naturalistic behavioral coding. In the VLBW group, BRIEF-P GEC correlated with working memory, switching, and inhibition-based tasks, while better compliance during a cleanup task was associated with better performance in the inhibition-based tasks. In contrast, in the FT sample, parent report and naturalistic behavioral coding scores were not correlated with any other EF measures. Children born VLBW had poorer EF outcomes than the FT group, regardless of measurement method. Correlations among multi-method measures of EF demonstrated different patterns of association in the VLBW and FT groups; BRIEF-P and compliance scores were only associated with other EF measures in the VLBW group.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, P. J. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P., Anderson, V., & Lajoie, G. (1996). The tower of London test: validation and standardization for pediatric populations. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 10(1), 54–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P., Anderson, V., Northam, E., & Taylor, H. G. (2000). Standardization of the Contingency Naming Test (CNT) for school-aged children: a measure of reactive flexibility. Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment, 1(4), 247–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, P. J., & Doyle, L. W. (2004). Executive functioning in school-aged children who were born very preterm or with extremely low birth weight in the 1990s. Pediatrics, 114(1), 50–57. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.114.1.50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, V., Lajoie, G., & Bell, R. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment of the school-aged child. Melbourne: University of Melbourne.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, I. S., Kerns, K., Müller, U., Ahronovich, M., & Litman, F. (2011). Executive functions in extremely low birth weight and late-preterm preschoolers: effects on working memory and response inhibition. Child Neuropsychology, 36, 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2011.631906.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, I. S., Weiss, B. A., Litman, F. R., Ahronovich, M. D., & Baker, R. (2014). Latent mean differences in executive function in at-risk preterm children: the delay-deficit dilemma. Neuropsychology, 28(4), 541. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000076.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bayless, S., & Stevenson, J. (2007). Executive functions in school-age children born prematurely. Early Human Development, 83(4), 247–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.05.021.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bodnar, L. E., Prahme, M. C., Cutting, L. E., Denckla, M. B., & Mahone, E. M. (2007). Construct validity of parent ratings of inhibitory control. Child Neuropsychology, 13, 345–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040600899867.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 595–616. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2802_3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children’s theory of mind. Child Development, 72(4), 1032–1053. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, S., & Wang, T. (2007). Inhibitory control and emotion regulation in preschool children. Cognitive Development, 22(4), 489–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, C. A., & Woodward, L. J. (2015). Relation of perinatal risk and early parenting to executive control at the transition to school. Developmental Science, 18(4), 525–542. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comas, M., Valentino, K., & Borkowski, J. G. (2014). Maternal depressive symptoms and child temperament: Longitudinal associations with executive functioning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 156–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.03.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B. (2002). The behavior rating inventory of executive function: commentary. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 304–306. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.4.304.13512.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A., Carlson, S., & Beck, D. (2005). Preschool children’s performance in task switching on the Dimensional Change Card Sort task: separating the dimensions aids the ability to switch. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 689–729. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2802_7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Duvall, S. W., Erickson, S. J., MacLean, P., & Lowe, J. R. (2015). Perinatal medical variables predict executive function within a sample of preschoolers born very low birth weight. Journal of Child Neurology, 30(6), 735–740. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073814542945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Esbjørn, B. H., Hansen, B. M., Greisen, G., & Mortensen, E. L. (2006). Intellectual development in a Danish cohort of prematurely born preschool children: specific or general difficulties? Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(6), 477–484. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200612000-00004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Espy, K. A. (2004). Using developmental, cognitive, and neuroscience approaches to understand executive control in young children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26(1), 379–384. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2601_1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Espy, K. A., Kaufmann, P., & Glisky, M. (1999). Neuropsychologic function in toddlers exposed to cocaine in utero: a preliminary study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 15(3), 447–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565649909540761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Espy, K. A., Stalets, M., McDiarmid, M., Senn, T., Cwik, M., & Hamby, A. (2002). Executive functions in preschool children born preterm: application of cognitive neuroscience paradigms. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 83–92. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.83.8723.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, N. P., Miyake, A., Robinson, & Hewitt, J. (2011). Developmental trajectories in toddlers’ self-restraint predict individual differences in executive functions 14 years later: a behavioral genetic analysis. Developmental Psychology, 47(5), 1410–1430. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023750.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gaddes, W. H., & Crockett, D. J. (1973). The Spreen-Benton aphasia tests, normative data as a measure of normal language development (research monograph no. 25). Victoria: Neuropsychology Laboratory, University of Victoria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: a review using an integrative framework. Psychology Bulletin, 134(1), 31–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gioia, G. A., Espy, K. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2003). Behavior rating inventory of executive function—preschool version. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2000). TEST REVIEW behavior rating inventory of executive function behavior rating inventory of executive function. Child Neuropsychology, 6(3), 235–238. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.6.3.235.3152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: a meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, J. A., McCardle, P. E., & Freund, L. S. (2016). Executive function in preschool-age children: integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14797-004

  • Gueron-Sela, N., Atzaba-Poria, N., Meiri, G., & Marks, K. (2015). The caregiving environment and developmental outcomes of preterm infants: diathesis stress or differential susceptibility effects? Child Development, 86(4), 1014–1030. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hack, M., Taylor, H. G., Drotar, D., Schlucter, M., Cartar, L., Wilson-Costello, D., Klein, N., Friedman, H., Mercuri-Minich, N., & Morrow, M. (2005). Poor predictive validity of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development for cognitive function of extremely low birth weight children at school age. Pediatrics, 116(2), 333–341. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hongwanishkul, D., Happaney, K. R., Lee, W. S. C., & Zelazo, P. D. (2005). Assessment of hot and cool executive function in young children: age-related changes and individual differences. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 617–644. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2802_4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, B. Y., & Castillo, M. (2008). Hypoxic-ischemic brain injury: imaging findings from birth to adulthood. Radiographics, 28(2), 417–439. https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.282075066.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2006). Behavioural problems in 2-year-olds: links with individual differences in theory of mind, executive function and harsh parenting. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 47, 488–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01519.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hüppi, P. S., Murphy, B., Maier, S. E., Zientara, G. P., Inder, T. E., Barnes, P. D., et al. (2001). Microstructural brain development after perinatal cerebral white matter injury assessed by diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging. Pediatrics, 107(3), 455–460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inder, T. E., Hüppi, P. S., Warfield, S., Kikinis, R., Zientara, G. P., Barnes, P. D., et al. (1999). Periventricular white matter injury in the premature infant is followed by reduced cerebral cortical gray matter volume at term. Annals of Neurology, 46(5), 755–760.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Inder, T. E., Wang, H., Volpe, J. J., & Warfield, S. K. (2003a).Premature infants with PVL have altered deep nuclear structures—a volumetric MR study In Pediatric Research (Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 538A-538A). 351 WEST CAMDEN ST, BALTIMORE, MD 21201-2436 USA: INT PEDIATRIC RESEARCH FOUNDATION, INC.

  • Inder, T. E., Wells, S. J., Mogridge, N. B., Spencer, C., & Volpe, J. J. (2003b). Defining the nature of the cerebral abnormalities in the premature infant: a qualitative magnetic resonance imaging study. The Journal of Pediatrics, 143(2), 171–179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaekel, J., Pluess, M., Belsky, J., & Wolke, D. (2015). Effects of maternal sensitivity on low birth weight children’s academic achievement: a test of differential susceptibility versus diathesis stress. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(6), 693–701. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kadesjö, B., Janols, L., Korkman, M., Mickelsson, K., Strand, G., Trillingsgaard, A., et al. (2004). The FTF (Five to Fifteen): the development of a parent questionnaire for the assessment of ADHD and comorbid conditions. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13, 3–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., Jacques, T. Y., Koenig, A. L., & Vandegeest, K. A. (1996). Inhibitory control in young children and its role in emerging internalization. Child Development, 67, 490–507. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131828.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (2007). Administration manual NEPSY-II. San Antonio: Harcourt Assessment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M., Stanger, C., & Sullivan, M. W. (1989). Deception in 3-year-olds. Developmental Psychology, 25, 439–443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liebermann, D., Giesbrecht, G., & Mueller, U. (2007). Cognitive and emotional aspects of self-regulation in preschoolers. Cognitive Development, 22(4), 511–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.08.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lind, A., Haataja, L., Rautava, L., Valiaho, A., Lehtonen, L., Lapinleimu, H., & PIPARI Study Group. (2010). Relations between brain volumes, neuropsychological assessment and parental questionnaire in prematurely born children. European Journal of Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(5), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-009-0070-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, J., Erickson, S. J., MacLean, P., Duvall, S. W., Ohls, R. K., & Duncan, A. F. (2014). Associations between maternal scaffolding and executive functioning in 3 and 4 year olds born very low birth weight and normal birth weight. Early Human Development, 90(10), 587–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2014.07.009.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mahone, E. M., & Hoffman, J. (2007). Behavior ratings of executive function among preschoolers with ADHD. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21, 569–586. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040600762724.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Månsson, J., & Stjernqvist, K. (2014). Children born extremely preterm show significant lower cognitive, language and motor function levels compared with children born at term, as measured by the Bayley-III at 2.5 years. Acta Paediatrica, 103(5), 504–511. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.12585.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAuley, T., Chen, S., Goos, L., Schachar, R., & Crosbie, J. (2010). Is the behavior rating inventory of executive function more strongly associated with measures of impairment or executive function? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(03), 495–505. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617710000093.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGrath, M., Sullivan, M., Devin, J., Fontes-Murphy, M., Barcelos, S., & DePalma, J. (2005). Early precursors of low attention and hyperactivity in a preterm sample at age four. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 28, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/01460860590913945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W. (1996). From good intentions to willpower. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 197–218). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933–938. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2658056.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., et al. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, N. L., De Haan, M., Platten, L., Sanderson, C., Day, K., & Marlow, N. (2014). A preliminary analysis of spatial working memory in preterm-born infants. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 56, 16. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000071.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morasch, K., & Bell, M. (2011). The role of inhibitory control in behavioral and physiological expressions of toddler executive function. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(3), 593–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.07.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moster, D., Lie, R. T., & Markestad, T. (2008). Long-term medical and social consequences of preterm birth. New England Journal of Medicine, 359(3), 262–273. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa0706475.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. M., James, T. D., Chevalier, N., Clark, C. A. C., & Espy, K. A. (2016). Structure, measurement, and development of preschool executive control. In Executive function in preschool age children: Integrating measurement, neurodevelopment, and translational research. American Psychological Association.

  • Niendam, T. A., Horwitz, J., Bearden, C. E., & Cannon, T. D. (2007). Ecological assessment of executive dysfunction in the psychosis prodrome: a pilot study. Schizophrenia Research, 93, 350–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.03.009.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Parent, J., Forehand, R., Dunbar, J. P., Watson, K. H., Reising, M. M., Seehuus, M., & Compas, B. E. (2014). Parent and adolescent reports of parenting when a parent has a history of depression: associations with observations of parenting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(2), 173–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9777-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Radley, K. C., & Dart, E. H. (2016). Antecedent strategies to promote children’s and adolescents’ compliance with adult requests: a review of the literature. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 19(1), 39–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0197-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reed, M. A., Pien, D. L., & Rothbart, M. K. (1984). Inhibitory self-control in preschool children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 30, 131–147.

  • Rey, A. (1941). L'examen psychologique dans le cas d'encephalopathie traumatique. [Psychological examination of traumatic encephalopathy.] Archives de Psychologie, (28) 286-340.

  • Seay, D. M., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Jahromi, L. B., & Updegraff, K. A. (2017). A prospective study of adolescent mothers’ social competence, children’s effortful control and compliance and children’s subsequent developmental outcomes. Social Development. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12238.

  • Shah, D. K., Anderson, P. J., Carlin, J. B., Pavlovic, M., Howard, K., Thompson, D. K., et al. (2006). Reduction in cerebellar volumes in preterm infants: relationship to white matter injury and neurodevelopment at two years of age. Pediatric Research, 60(1), 97–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 298(1089), 199–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., & Peake, P. K. (1990). Predicting adolescent cognitive and self- regulatory competencies from preschool delay of gratification: identifying diagnostic conditions. Developmental Psychology, 26, 978–986. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.26.6.978.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strommen, E. A. (1973). Verbal self-regulation n a children’s game: impulsive errors on “Simon Says”. Child Development, 44, 849–853.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, H. G., & Clark, C. A. (2016). Executive function in children born preterm: risk factors and implications for outcome. In Seminars in Perinatology (Vol. 40, No. 8, pp. 520–529). WB Saunders. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2016.09.004.

  • Vaughn, B., Kopp, C., & Krakow, J. (1984). The emergence and consolidation of self-control from 18–30 months of age: normative trends and individual differences. Child Development, 55, 990–1004. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130151.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vicari, S., Caravale, B., Carlesimo, G. A., Casadei, A. M., & Allemand, F. (2004). Spatial working memory deficits in children at ages 3-4 who were low birth weight, preterm infants. Neuropsychology, 18(4), 673–678. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.18.4.673.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volpe, J. J. (1997). Brain injury in the premature infant. Neuropathology, clinical aspects, pathogenesis, and prevention. Clinics in Perinatology, 24(3), 567–587.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vriezen, E. R., & Pigott, S. E. (2002). The relationship between parental report on the BRIEF and performance- based measures of executive function in children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Child Neuropsychology, 8(4), 296–303. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.4.296.13505.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2002). manual for wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence—third edition (WPPSI-III). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whiteside-Mansell, L., Bradley, R. H., Owen, M. T., Randolph, S. M., & Cauce, A. M. (2003). Parenting and children’s behavior at 36 months: equivalence between African American and European American mother-child dyads. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3, 197–234. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327922par0303_02.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, L. J., Clark, C. A., Pritchard, V. E., Anderson, P. J., & Inder, T. E. (2011). Neonatal white matter abnormalities predict global executive function impairment in children born very preterm. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(1), 22–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, L. J., Edgin, J. O., Thompson, D., & Inder, T. E. (2005). Object working memory deficits predicted by early brain injury and development in the preterm infant. Brain, 211(11), 2578–2587. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Y. C., Hsieh, W. S., Hsu, C. H., Chang, J. H., Chou, H. C., Hsu, H. C., et al. (2016). Intervention effects on emotion regulation in preterm infants with very low birth weight: a randomized controlled trial. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 48, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.10.016.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. M., Morgan, B. R., Powell, T. L., Moore, A. M., Whyte, H. E., Smith, M. L., & Taylor, M. J. (2016). Associations of perinatal clinical and magnetic resonance imaging measures with developmental outcomes in children born very preterm. The Journal of Pediatrics, 170, 90–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.11.044.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity. Child Development Perspectives, 6(4), 354–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00246.x.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank all of the families who participated in this study. The authors also wish to thank Joy Van Meter, B.S., for assistance in processing the tape sessions.

Funding

This work was supported by the New Mexico Graduate Research and Development Grant and the New Mexico Apprenticeship Award Signature Program in Child Health Research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, Institute on Development & Disability, Oregon Health & Science University, Mail Code CDRC, 707 SW Gaines Street, Oregon, Portland, 97239-3098, USA

    Susanne W. Duvall

  2. Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Logan Hall, MSC03-2220, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA

    Sarah J. Erickson

  3. UNM HSC School of Medicine Center for Development and Disability, 2300 Menaul Blvd NE, Albuquerque, NM, 87107, USA

    Peggy MacLean

  4. Pacific University School of Graduate Psychology, 190 SE 8th Ave, Suite 260, Hillsboro, OR, 97123, USA

    Theresa LaFavor

  5. Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, University of New Mexico, MSC10 5590, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA

    Jean R. Lowe

Authors
  1. Susanne W. Duvall
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sarah J. Erickson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Peggy MacLean
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Theresa LaFavor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jean R. Lowe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Susanne W. Duvall.

Ethics declarations

Informed consent was obtained from the guardian(s) of all participants included in the study. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Informed consent was obtained from the guardian(s) of all participants included in the study. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Duvall, S.W., Erickson, S.J., MacLean, P. et al. Multimodal Executive Function Measurement in Preschool Children Born Very Low Birth Weight and Full Term: Relationships Between Formal Lab-Based Measure Performance, Parent Report, and Naturalistic Observational Coding. J Pediatr Neuropsychol 3, 195–205 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40817-017-0047-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40817-017-0047-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation