Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Predicting Teachers’ Job Satisfaction from Student Aggression Toward Teachers and Related Trauma

  • Published:
Contemporary School Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

With aggression toward teachers increasingly described as prevalent, teachers’ risk for traumatic stress response and related job satisfaction has yet to be adequately researched. The purpose of this study was to quantify a model predicting teacher-reported trauma from teacher report of the aggression projected toward them by students and predicting teachers’ job satisfaction from both aggression toward teachers and teacher-reported trauma. Goodness of fit indices supported the model’s fit to a sample of 327 kindergarten through twelfth-grade teachers. Results revealed that aggression toward teachers did not predict teacher job satisfaction, but rather aggression toward teachers predicted higher self-report of teacher trauma, and teacher trauma predicted a decrease in teacher-reported job satisfaction. Findings suggest that teachers’ job satisfaction is not lowered until aggression leads to teachers’ traumatic response. Results expand the need for increased teacher well-being policy and methods, along with systematic changes within schools to assist in lowering aggression toward teachers and the associated traumatic response. Relationships between teacher and student are pivotal to the positive health and well-being of all collaborators within the school. Traumatic response of teachers from aggression directed toward them and related job satisfaction of teachers is not well understood in the literature yet. Discovering the path by which trauma occurs is crucial to making positive changes to the school environment for both teachers and students.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5) (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

  • Anderman, E. M., Eseplage, D. L., Reddy, L. A., McMahon, S. D., Martinez, A., Lane, K. L., Reynolds, C., & Paul, N. (2018). Teachers’ reactions to experiences of violence: An attributional analysis. Social Psychology of Education, 21(3), 621–653. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-018-9438-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2018). SRMR in Mplus. [Technical report]. Mplus

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indices in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.107.2.238

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M., & Bonnet, D. C. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88(3), 588–606. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Behrhorst, K. L., Sullivan, T. N., & Sutherland, K. S. (2020). The impact of classroom climate on aggression and victimization in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 40(5), 689–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431619870616

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borntrager, C., Caringi, J. C., van den Pol, R., Crosby, L., O’Connell, K., Trautman, A., & McDonald, M. (2012). Secondary traumatic stress in school personnel. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 5(1), 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/1754730X.2012.664862

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Rose, S., Andrews, B., Green, J., Tata, P., McEvedy, C., Turner, S., & Foa, E. B. (2002). Brief screening instrument for posttraumatic stress disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 181(2), 158–162. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.181.2.158

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bride, B., Hatcher, S., & Humble, M. (2009). Trauma training, trauma practices, and secondary traumatic stress among substance abuse counselors. Traumatology, 15(2), 96–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765609336362

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bride, B., & Kintzle, S. (2011). Secondary traumatic stress, job satisfaction, and occupational commitment in substance abuse counselors. Traumatology, 17(1), 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765610395617

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternate ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, F., Curran, P. J., Bollen, K. A., Kirby, J., & Paxton, P. (2008). An empirical evaluation of the use of fixed cutoff points in RMSEA test statistic in structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research, 36(4), 462–494. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124108314720

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1965, 112(4), 558–577. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Ruiter, J. A., Poorthuis, A. M., & Koomen, H. M. (2019). Relevant classroom events for teachers: A study of student characteristics, student behaviors, and associated teacher emotions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 86, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edinger, S. K., & Edinger, M. J. (2018). Improving teacher job satisfaction: The roles of social capital, teacher efficacy, and support. The Journal of Psychology, 152(8), 573–593. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2018.1489364

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fox-Wasylyshyn, S. M., & El-Masri, M. M. (2005). Handling missing data in self-report measures. Research in Nursing & Health, 28(6), 488–495. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldring, R., Taie, S., and Riddles, M. (2014). Teacher attrition and mobility: Results from the 2012–13 teacher follow-up survey (NCES 2014–077). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch.

  • Hajovsky, D. B., Mason, B. A., & McCune, L. A. (2017). Teacher-student relationship quality and academic achievement in elementary school: A longitudinal examination of gender differences. Journal of School Psychology, 63, 119–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2017.04.001

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harding, S., Morris, R., Gunnell, D., Ford, T., Hollingworth, W., Tilling, K., Evans, R., Bell, S., Grey, J., Brockman, R., Campbell, R., Araya, R., Murphy, S., & Kidger, J. (2019). Is teachers’ mental health and wellbeing associated with students’ mental health and wellbeing? Journal of Affective Disorders, 253, 460–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.03.046

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Høigaard, R., Giske, R., & Sundsli, K. (2012). Newly qualified teachers’ work engagement and teacher efficacy influences on job satisfaction, burnout, and the intention to quit. European Journal of Teacher Education, 35(3), 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2011.633993

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ivicic, R., & Motta, R. (2017). Variables associated with secondary traumatic stress among mental health professionals. Traumatology, 23(2), 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000065

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kangas, M., Siklander, P., Randolph, J., & Ruokamo, H. (2017). Teachers’ engagement and students’ satisfaction with a playful learning environment. Teaching and Teacher Education, 63, 274–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.12.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, D. A., Kaniskan, B., & McCoach, D. B. (2015). The performance of RMSEA in models with small degrees of freedom. Sociological Methods & Research, 44(3), 486–507. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124114543236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klest, B., Tamaian, A., & Boughner, E. (2019). A model exploring the relationship between betrayal trauma and health: The roles of mental health, attachment, trust in healthcare systems, and nonadherence to treatment. Psychological Trauma, 11(6), 656–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000453

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford

  • Kosinski, M., Matz, S. C., Gosling, S. D., Popov, V., & Stillwell, D. (2015). Facebook as a research tool for the social sciences: Opportunities, challenges, ethical considerations, and practical guidelines. American Psychologist, 70(6), 543–556. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039210

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni, S., Bell, H., Hartman, J. L., & Herman-Smith, R. L. (2013). Exploring individual and organizational factors contributing to compassion satisfaction, secondary traumatic stress, and burnout in domestic violence service providers. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 4(2), 114–130. https://doi.org/10.5243/jsswr.2013.8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landers, E., Alter, P., & Servilio, K. (2008). Students’ challenging behavior and teachers’ job satisfaction. Beyond Behavior, 18(1), 26–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larkin, I., Brantley-Dias, L., & Lokey-Vega, A. (2016). Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention of online teachers in the K-12 setting. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 20(3), 26–51. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v20i3.986

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lavy, S., & Bocker, S. (2018). A path to teacher happiness? A sense of meaning affects teacher–student relationships, which affect job satisfaction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 19(5), 1485–1503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9883-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E. (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(4), 309–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(69)90013-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ludick, M., & Figley, C. R. (2017). Toward a mechanism for secondary trauma induction and reduction: Reimagining a theory of secondary traumatic stress. Traumatology, 23(1), 112–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000096

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., Roznowski, M., & Necowitz, L. B. (1992). Model modifications in covariance structure analysis: The problem of capitalization on chance. Psychological Bulletin, 111(3), 490–504. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.111.3.490

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malinen, O., & Savolainen, H. (2016). The effect of perceived school climate and teacher efficacy in behavior management on job satisfaction and burnout: A longitudinal study. Teaching and Teacher Education, 60, 144–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.08.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, E. (1984). Power and authority in the classroom: Sexist stereotypes in teaching evaluations. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 9(3), 482–492. https://doi.org/10.1086/494073

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, A. J., & Collie, R. J. (2019). Teacher-student relationships and students’ engagement in high school: Does the number of negative and positive relationships with teachers matter? Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(5), 861–876. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000317

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, M. O., Mullis, I. V. S., Hooper, M., Yin, L., Foy, P., Fishbein, B., & Liu, J. (2017). Creating and interpreting the PIRLS 2016 context questionnaire scales. In M. O. Martin, I. V. S. Mullis, & M. Hooper (Eds.), Methods and procedures in PIRLS 2016 (pp. 14.1–14.106). https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/publications/pirls/2016-methods/chapter-14.html

  • McMahon, S. D., Martinez, A., Espelage, D., Rose, C., Reddy, L. A., Lane, K., Anderman, E. M., Reynolds, C. R., Jones, A., & Brown, V. (2014). Violence directed against teachers: Results from a national survey. Psychology in the Schools, 51(7), 753–766. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21777

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, S. D., Peist, E., Davis, J., Bare, K., Martinez, A., Reddy, L., Espelage, D. L., & Anderman, E. M. (2020). Physical aggression toward teachers: Antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. Aggressive Behavior, 46(1), 693–697. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21870

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, S. D., Reaves, S., McConnell, E. A., Peist, E., Ruiz, L., Espelage, D., Reddy, L. A., Anderman, E. M., Lane, K., Reynolds, C. R., Jones, A., & Brown, V. (2017). The ecology of teachers’ experiences with violence and lack of administrative support. American Journal of Community Psychology, 60(3–4), 502–515. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12202

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moon, B., McCluskey, J., & Morash, M. (2019). Aggression against middle and high school teachers: Duration of victimization and its negative impacts. Aggressive Behavior, 45(5), 517–526. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21840

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muse-Gillette, L., Zhang, A., Wang, K., Zhang, J., Kemp, J., Diliberti, M., & Oudekerk, B.A. (2018). Indicators of school crime and safety: 2017 (NCES 2018–036/NCJ 251413). National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, L. A., Espelage, D. L., Anderman, E. M., Kanrich, J. B., & McMahon, S. D. (2018). Addressing violence against educators through measurement and research. Journal of Aggression & Violent Behavior, 42, 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.06.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, K. A., & Johnson, K. R. (2019). Job satisfaction, work engagement, and turnover intention of CTE health science teachers. International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training, 6(3), 224–242. https://doi.org/10.13152/IJRVET.6.3.2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perera, H., Granziera, H., & Mcilveen, P. (2018). Profiles of teacher personality and relations with teacher self-efficacy, work engagement, and job satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 120, 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.08.034

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perrachione, B. A., Petersen, G. J., & Rosser, V. J. (2008). Why do they stay? Elementary teachers’ perceptions of job satisfaction and retention. The Professional Educator, 32(2), 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quin, D. (2017). Longitudinal and contextual associations between teacher-student relationships and student engagement: A systematic review. Review of Educational Research, 87(2), 345–387. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316669434

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robins, P., Meltzer, L., & Zelikovsky, N. (2009). The experience of secondary traumatic stress upon care providers working within a children’s hospital. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 24(4), 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2008.03.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2014). Teacher self-efficacy and perceived autonomy: Relations with teacher engagement, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion. Psychological Reports, 114(1), 68–77. https://doi.org/10.2466/14.02.pr0.114k14w0

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, T., Barnard-Brak, L., Roberts, B., Acosta, R., & Wilburn, S. (2020a). Aggression toward teachers, interaction with school shooting media, and secondary trauma: Lockdown drills as moderator. Psychology in the Schools, 57(4), 583–605. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22329

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, T., Cook, K., Jackson, J., Boykin, A., and Gibbs, M. (2020a, August 6–8). Aggression toward teachers and traumatic stress response: Negative lockdown drill experiences as mediator [Poster presentation]. American Psychological Association Convention, Virtual. https://convention.apa.org/

  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14–4884. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

  • Sutcher, L., Darling-Hammond, L., & Carver-Thomas, D. (2019). Understanding teacher shortages: An analysis of teacher supply and demand in the United States. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 27(35), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.3696

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taxer, J. L., Becker-Kurz, B., & Frenzel, A. C. (2019). Do quality teacher–student relationships protect teachers from emotional exhaustion? The mediating role of enjoyment and anger. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal, 22(1), 209–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-018-9468-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veldman, I., Van Tartwijk, J., Brekelmans, M., & Wubbels, T. (2013). Job satisfaction and teacher–student relationships across the teaching career: Four case studies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 32, 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2013.01.005

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Educational Psychology and Leadership, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA

    Jesseca Jackson & Tara Stevens

Authors
  1. Jesseca Jackson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tara Stevens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jesseca Jackson.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval

The study was conducted following the APA ethical standards.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

The submitted manuscript has not been published prior to the current date and has not been simultaneously submitted to other journals. However, a poster presentation based on the same data was presented virtually at the American Psychological Association’s Annual Meeting, 2020.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jackson, J., Stevens, T. Predicting Teachers’ Job Satisfaction from Student Aggression Toward Teachers and Related Trauma. Contemp School Psychol 27, 479–490 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-022-00409-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-022-00409-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation