Abstract
This article reconsiders the early hominid “lithic niche” by examining the social implications of stone artifact making. I reject the idea that making tools for use is an adequate explanation of the elaborate artifact forms of the Lower Palaeolithic, or a sufficient cause for long-term trends in hominid technology. I then advance an alternative mechanism founded on the claim that competency in making stone artifacts requires extended learning, and that excellence in artifact making is attained only by highly skilled individuals who have been taught and practiced for extensive periods. Consequently both competency and expertise in knapping comes at a high learning cost for both the individual learner and the social group to which they belong. Those high intrinsic costs of learning created contexts in which groups selected cost-reducing forms of social learning and teaching, and in which specialization could develop. Artifacts and their manufacturing processes probably acquired functions as social signals—as honest signals of valuable capacities. The magnification of these signals, through competition between knappers and through inspiring later craftspeople, may account for a substantial amount of the accumulated elaboration visible in the archaeological record. Consequently lithic artifacts operated as material symbols from an early time in hominid evolution.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baena J, Lordkipanidz D, Cuartero F et al (2010) Technical and technological complexity in the beginning: the study of Dmanisi lithic assemblage. Quat Int 223–224:45–53
Barham L (2002) Backed tools in Middle Pleistocene central Africa and their evolutionary significance. J Hum Evol 43:585–603
Bleed P (2006) Living in the human niche. Evol Anthropol 15:8–10
Blumenschine RJ, Masao FT, Tactikos JC et al (2008) Effects of distance from stone source on landscape-scale variation in Oldowan artifact assemblages in the Paleo-Olduvai Basin, Tanzania. J Archaeol Sci 35:76–86
Braun D, Harris JWK (2009) Plio-Pleistocene technological variation: a view from the KBS Mbr., Koobi Fora formation. In: Schick K, Toth N (eds) The cutting edge: new approaches to the archaeology of human origins. Stone Age Institute Press, Gosport, pp 17–32
Braun DR, Plummer T, Ditchfield P et al (2008) Oldowan behavior and raw material transport: perspectives from the Kanjera formation. J Archaeol Sci 35:2329–2345
Bruner J (1960) The process of education. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
Clark JD (2001) The Bwalya industry: Inuga phase (Final Acheulian) and Moola phase (Upper Acheulian). In: Clark JD (ed) Kalambo Falls prehistoric site. III. The earlier cultures: Middle and Earlier Stone Age. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 286–463
Collard M, Buchanan B, Ruttle A et al (2011) Niche construction and the toolkits of hunter–gatherers and food producers. Biol Theory 6:251–259
Davidson I (2002) “The finished artefact fallacy”: Acheulian handaxes and language origins. In: Wray A (ed) Transitions to language. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 180–202
Davidson I (2010) Stone tools and the evolution of hominin and human cognition. In: Nowell A, Davidson I (eds) Stone tools and the evolution of human cognition. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, pp 185–206
de la Torre I (2010) Insights on the technical competence of the Early Oldowan. In: Nowell A, Davidson I (eds) Stone tools and the evolution of human cognition. University Press of Colorado, Boulder, pp 45–66
Eren MI, Bradley BA, Sampson CG (2011) Middle Paleolithic skill-level and the individual knapper: an experiment. Am Antiq 76:229–251
Faisal A, Stout D, Apel J et al (2010) The manipulative complexity of Lower Paleolithic Stone toolmaking. PLoS One 5:e13718
Faivre J-P (2012) A material anecdote but technical reality: bladelet and small blade production during the recent Middle Paleolithic at the Combe-Grenal rock shelter. Lithic Technol 37:5–25
Gamble C (1998) Handaxes and Palaeolithic individuals. In: Ashton N, Healy F, Pettitt P (eds) Stone age archaeology. Alden Press, Oxford, pp 105–109
Gamble C (2012) Creativity and complex society before the upper Palaeolithic transition. In: Elias S (ed) Origins of human innovation and creativity. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 15–21
Gopher A, Barkai R (2011) Sitting on the tailing piles: creating extraction landscapes in middle Pleistocene quarry complexes in the Levant. World Archaeology 43:211–229
Gowlett J (1988) A case study of developed Oldowan in the Acheulian? World Archaeol 20:13–26
Gowlett J (1998) Unity and diversity in the early stone Age. In: Ashton N, Healy F, Pettitt P (eds) Stone Age archaeology. Alden Press, Oxford, pp 59–66
Gowlett JAJ (2011) The vital sense of proportion: transformation, golden section and 1:2 preference in Acheulean bifaces. Palaeoanthropology (Special Issue) 2011:174–187
Henrich J (2004) Demography and cultural evolution: why adaptive cultural processes produced maladaptive losses in Tasmania. Am Antiq 69:197–221
Henrich J, Gil-White FJ (2001) The evolution of prestige: freely conferred deference as a mechanism for enhancing the benefits of cultural transmission. Evol Hum Behav 22:165–196
Hiscock P (2004) Slippery and billy: intention, selection and equifinality in lithic artefacts. Camb Archaeol J 14:71–77
Hiscock P (2014) Evolvability and the puzzle of form and function disjunctions in lithic materials. In: Collard M, Buchanan B, Kuhn S, O’Brien M (eds) Lithics, evolution, science. University of Arizona Press, Tucson
Hiscock P, Attenbrow V (2005) Reduction continuums and tool use. In: Clarkson C, Lamb L (eds) Rocking the boat: recent Australian approaches to lithic reduction, use and classification. Archaeopress, Oxford
Hiscock P, O’Connor S (2006) An Australian perspective on modern behaviour and artefact assemblages. Before Farming 2:1–10
Hiscock P, Clarkson C, Mackay A (2011) Big debates over little tools: ongoing disputes over microliths on three continents. World Archaeol 43:653–664
Hodgson D (2009) Symmetry and humans: a reply to Mithen’s ‘sexy handaxe theory.’ Antiquity 83:195–198
Hovers E (2012) Invention, reinvention and innovation: the makings of Oldowan lithic technology. In: Elias S (ed) Origins of human innovation and creativity. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 51–68
Iovita R, McPherron S (2011) The handaxe reloaded: a morphometric assessment of Acheulian and middle Palaeolithic handaxes. J Hum Evol 61:61–74
Isaac GL (1977) Olorgesailie: archaeological studies of a middle Pleistocene Lake Basin in Kenya. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Johnson CR, McBrearty S (2010) 500,000 year old blades from the Kapthurin formation, Kenya. J Hum Evol 58:193–200
Kohn M, Mithen S (1999) Handaxes: products of sexual selection? Antiquity 73:518–526
Kuhn S (1995) Mousterian lithic technology. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Kyara O (1999) Lithic raw materials and their implications on assemblage variation and hominid behavior during Bed II, Olduvai George, Tanzania. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Rutgers University, New Brunswick
Laland KN, Kendal JR, Brown GR (2007) The niche construction perspective: implications for evolution and human behavior. J Evol Psychol 5:51–66
Leakey MD (1971) Olduvai Gorge. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Lepre CJ, Roche H, Kent DV et al (2011) An earlier origin for the Acheulian. Nature 477:82–83
Machin A (2008) Why handaxes just aren’t that sexy: a response to Kohn and Mithen (1999). Antiquity 82:761–769
McNabb J (1998) On the move, theory, time averaging and resource transport at Olduvai Gorge. In: Ashton N, Healy F, Pettitt P (eds) Stone Age archaeology. Alden Press, Oxford, pp 15–22
McNabb J (2005) Reply. Curr Anthropol 46:460–463
McNabb J, Binyon F, Hazelwood L (2004) The large cutting tools from the South African Acheulian and the question of social traditions. Curr Anthropol 45:653–677
McPherron SP, Alemseged Z, Marean CW et al (2010) Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature 466:857–860
Monigal K (2001) Lower and middle Paleolithic blade industries and the dawn of the upper Paleolithic in the Levant. Archaeol, Ethnol Anthropol Eurasia 1:11–24
Newman K, Moore M (2013) Ballistically anomalous stone projectile points in Australia. J Archaeol Sci 40:2614–2620
Nowell A, Chang ML (2009) The case against sexual selection as an explanation of handaxe morphology. Paleoanthropology 2009:77–88
O’Brien E (1981) The projectile capabilities of an Acheulian handaxe from Olorgesailie. Curr Anthropol 22:76–79
Pope M, Russel A, Watson K (2006) Biface form and structured behaviour in the Acheulean. Lithics 27:44–57
Potts R (1984) Home bases and early hominids. Am Sci 72:338–347
Potts R (1991) Why the Oldowan? Plio-Pleistocene toolmaking and the transport of resources. J Anthropol Res 47:153–176
Powell A, Shennan S, Thomas M (2009) Late Pleistocene demography and the appearance of modern human behavior. Science 324:298–301
Pratt DD (1988) Andragogy as a relational construct. Adult Educ Q 38:160–181
Pratt DD (1998) Five perspectives on teaching in adult and higher education. Krieger Publishing, Malabar
Reti JS (2013) Methods for determining differential behaviors in stone tool production and application to the Oldowan of Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Koobi Fora, Kenya. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Rutgers University, New Brunswick
Schick KD, Toth N (1993) Making silent stones speak. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London
Semaw S (2000) The World’s oldest stone artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: their implications for understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6–1.5 million years ago. J Archaeol Sci 27:1197–1214
Semaw S, Rogers M, Stout D (2009) The Oldowan-Acheulian Transition: is there a “Developed Oldowan” artefact tradition? In: Camps M, Chauhan P (eds) Sourcebook of Paleolithic transitions. Springer, New York, pp 173–193
Shaw-Williams K (2013) The social trackways theory of the evolution of human cognition. Biol Theory 9. doi:10.1007/s13752-013-0144-9
Spikins P (2012) Goodwill hunting? Debates over the ‘meaning’ of lower Palaeolithic handaxe form revisited. World Archaeol 44:378–392
Sterelny K (2007) Social intelligence, human intelligence and niche construction. Philos Trans Royal Soc Lond Ser B 362(1480):719–730
Sterelny K (2012) The evolved apprentice: how evolution made humans unique. MIT Press, Cambridge
Stout D (2002) Skill and cognition in stone tool production: an ethnographic case study from Irian Jaya. Curr Anthropol 43:693–722
Stout D (2011) Stone toolmaking and the evolution of human culture and cognition. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 366:1050–1059
Stout D, Chaminade T (2007) The evolutionary neuroscience of tool making. Neuropsychologia 45:1091–1100
Stout DN, Toth K, Schick et al (2009) Neural correlates of early Stone Age toolmaking: technology, language and cognition in human evolution. In: Renfrew C, Frith C, Malafouris L (eds) The sapient mind: archaeology meets neuroscience. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 1–19
Torrence R (1986) Production and exchange of stone tools: prehistoric obsidian in the Aegean. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Waguespack NM, Surovell TA, Denoyer A et al (2009) Making a point: wood- versus stone-tipped projectiles. Antiquity 83:786–800
Whiten A, Erdal D (2012) The human socio-cognitive niche and its evolutionary origins. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 367:2119–2129
Acknowledgments
Explicit thanks are due to Kim Sterelny for eliciting this paper and for insightful commentary on the arguments offered within it. Ideas within the paper also benefited from discussions with many people including Peter Godfrey-Smith, Kim Shaw-Williams, Russell Gray, Alex Mackay, and Ceri Shipton.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hiscock, P. Learning in Lithic Landscapes: A Reconsideration of the Hominid “Toolmaking” Niche. Biol Theory 9, 27–41 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13752-013-0158-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13752-013-0158-3